God, Creation & Human Rebellion

Chapter 1

17. On the Will 193

-- 3 of 215 -- 3 Preface And he was a ready scribe…which the LORD God of Israel had given. —Ezra 7:6 The work before you came about in a unique way. I quite unexpectedly happened upon the manuscript of this volume in an

Chapter 2

39. For a seminal article on the relationship between Scottish Enlightenment philosophy and its impact on American

theologizing, see Sydney E. Ahlstrom, “The Scottish Philosophy and American theology,” Church History 24 (1955): 257–72. For an extended study on the related impact of the Scottish Enlightenment on science, ethics, faith

Chapter 3

D. G. Hart (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), 221–66.

33 Alexander, Life of Archibald Alexander, 366. -- 25 of 215 -- 25 who had been imbued with Dr. Alexander’s metaphysics were sure to swallow his entire system.”34 The seminary curriculum also included study of natural

Chapter 4

1. What is truth?

Truth, which is the object of all science, scarcely admits of a strict definition. Beattie1 says, that is truth which the constitution of our nature determines us to believe, and that is falsehood which the constitution

Chapter 5

2. Is the mind of man capable of attaining any certain knowledge?

Yes. The supposition that it can be proved that all human knowledge is uncertain destroys itself by taking it for granted that the uncertainty of our knowledge can be certainly known. So man can[not] be a consistent univ

Chapter 6

3. Are there innate ideas in the mind of man?

No, if we understand this phrase as used by Mr. Locke,2 who considered it as meaning certain impressions or notions existing in the mind previous to and independent of reflection and sensation. It is one thing herein to

Chapter 7

4. Are there any self-evident or intuitive truths?

1 [Possibly James Beattie (1735–1803), Evidences of the Christian Religion, 2 vols. (1786).] 2 [John Locke (1632–1704) was an English philosopher and influential Enlightenment thinker.] -- 35 of 215 -- 35 Yes. Those pr

Chapter 8

5. On what evidence does the belief of our existence rest?

We have no other direct evidence of our existence than that of consciousness, though strictly speaking existence is not the object of consciousness, but we are conscious of our thoughts. That which does not exist cannot

Chapter 9

7. Why do we believe what we distinctly remember?

We can give no other reason than that such is the constitution of our nature that we are under the necessity of believing what we distinctly remember, as well as what we perceive or are conscious of.

Chapter 10

8. Why do we believe in testimony?

Our belief is not the result of experience but arises from the constitution of our nature. 3 [René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French mathematician, scientist, and the father of modern Western philosophy.] -- 36 of 215

Chapter 11

3. They are practically followed even by contrary theorists.

With respect to many we can be certain that they belong to this class; with regard to others it may be doubted whether they are known by the faculty of common sense or by a short process of reasoning.

Chapter 12

12. Can there be any reasoning with those who deny them?

-- 37 of 215 -- 37 No. For there can be no reasoning without premises, and these in the first instance must be self-evident. Reasoning is the comparison of ideas already known and thereby inferring others before unknown

Chapter 13

17. How does it appear that matter and mind are essentially different?

If the word matter be taken in the sense in which it is used in natural philosophy, there can be no doubt on the subject. For of all the properties essential to matter, not one can be -- 38 of 215 -- 38 predicated of m

Chapter 14

3. This conviction is immediate and not the result of reasoning

The objects of the mind in perception are the qualities of bodies with certain states and conditions of our own bodies, mechanical powers, chemical powers, and so on. Every object of perception must have a real existence

Chapter 15

22. To what skepticism did this opinion lead?

Berkeley’s4 taking for granted that all the objects of our knowledge were ideas proved that the material world does not exist. And Hume,5 setting out with dividing all the perceptions of the human mind into impressions a

Chapter 16

24. What is sensation, and how is it distinguished from perception?

Sensation is distinguished from every other act of the mind in having no object distinct from the act itself. Its essence consists in being felt. Sensation is related to perception as the sign to the thing signified. Sen

Chapter 17

25. What is consciousness?

It is an involuntary act and signifies the immediate knowledge we must of necessity have of all the present operations of our minds. It regards only what is present and also what is in the mind.

Chapter 18

28. What is reasoning?

It is that power of the mind by which we draw inferences or by which we are convinced that a relation belongs to two ideas on account of our having found that these ideas bear certain relations to other ideas.

Chapter 19

30. Does memory never deceive us?

No. We are sometimes at a loss to know whether we remember or not, but it is impossible that what we do remember should not be true. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish memory and imagination.

Chapter 20

31. What is conception and what is imagination?

Conception is that power of the mind by which we are able to form a notion of our past sensations or of absent objects of perception. Its business is to present the mind with an exact transcript of what we have felt or p

Chapter 21

32. What is attention, and should it be reckoned a distinct faculty?

Attention is the fixedness of the mind on a particular object. When this object is external it is called “attention,” but receives the appellation of “reflexion”8 when the object is within. It is not a distinct faculty.

Chapter 22

33. What is abstraction?

Abstraction is the faculty by which we resolve or analyze a subject into its known 7 [This inexplicable “App.,” which occurs throughout the original manuscript, appears to have been a syllabus or supplement to Alexander’

Chapter 23

34. Are there any general conceptions?

Yes. And these are formed by the power of abstraction, separating from individuals their attributes and then by the faculty of generalization, collecting such as are common to a number into one idea. In this way our noti

Chapter 24

35. For what do general terms stand for in reasoning?

In regard to this point there have been three different opinions, the advocates of which have respectively been called Realists, Nominalists, and Conceptualists. Plato and Aristotle,9 though they differed in some particu

Chapter 25

37. What is association, and what is its importance?

Association is the tendency of the mind to pass from one thought to another on account of some relation between them. It is of the greatest importance as it has great influence in regulating the succession of our thought

Chapter 26

1. Some consider conscience not only as an original, but also an indifferent faculty,

so that the decisions of conscience and the understanding may be directly opposed to each other, and that conscience is always right.16 15 [Conceptualism lies between Realism and Nominalism and denies the presence of uni

Chapter 27

39. Is it properly called “the Moral Sense”?

Moral sense refers as much to the actions of others as to our own. Conscience refers only to our own. The latter is the exercise of the former on a particular class of objects. Yet conscience is often used in the extende

Chapter 28

40. Is it uniform in its dictates?

Yes, within certain limits; that is, as there are first principles in every science, so in morals there are some things so plain that men never differ in regard to them. But when we leave these, the decisions of conscien

Chapter 29

41. Is conscience distinct from the understanding?

No. It is the exercise of the understanding on moral subjects accompanied by a feeling of the heart as to their being right or wrong. 17 Paley/Locke [William Paley (1743–1805) and John Locke (1632–1704) were English phil

Chapter 30

43. How can the diversity in the operations of conscience be accounted for?

In the same way as we account for the vast diversity in the operations of other original faculties, such as taste and judgment. Men often agree in a moral principle though they err in its application. Thus one nation app

Chapter 31

44. What are simple ideas and what are complex ideas?

A simple idea is an idea of a simple object, that is, of an object without parts—or it is an idea that cannot be resolved into two or more ideas. A complex idea arises from the combination of two or more simple ideas, or

Chapter 32

45. Are all our simple ideas derived from sensation and reflection?

Such is the general opinion of philosophers, but it is difficult in this way to account for our ideas of identity, of unity, of duration, and so on. See App., p. 4. 18 [The killing of one’s father, or parents.] -- 46 of

Chapter 33

50. What is natural theology?

It consists in the knowledge of those truths concerning the being and attributes of God, the principles of human duty, and the expectation of a future state derived from reason alone. -- 47 of 215 -- 47

Chapter 34

52. Is that theology sufficient to lead men to the true knowledge of God?

It may lead us to the knowledge of God as Creator, Preserver, and Governor, and to the knowledge of those attributes manifested in the works of God, but it cannot make us acquainted with His character as Redeemer and as

Chapter 35

55. How do men acquire the idea of a God?

The mind of man is so formed that though it has no innate ideas of God, nor any intuitive perception of His existence, yet it has a faculty well suited to receive this truth so that when it is proposed, it easily and rea

Chapter 36

56. How can the existence of God be demonstrated?

The arguments for the being of God have generally been divided into those from a priori [from what is before] and those a posteriori [from what comes after]. It has also been argued from the universal and uninterrupted c

Chapter 37

57. What is the nature of the argument a priori [from the prior]?

It consists in arguing from cause to effect. It begins with establishing our own existence from consciousness, that we are not necessarily existent and therefore must have a cause; that something must have existed from a

Chapter 38

58. What is the nature of the argument a posteriori [from that which is later]?

It is a reasoning from the effect to the cause. It is founded on the principle that every 1 [There were many prominent theological and philosophical writers by the name of Samuel Clark(e) during the 1600s and 1700s, incl

Chapter 39

61. What is the force of the argument from general consent?

The universality and uninterruptedness of the belief in the existence of God is a phenomenon that nothing but the truth of the fact can solve, particularly when we consider that all wicked men must wish it were not so. T

Chapter 40

63. How does the existence of conscience prove the being of a God?

There is a law in the human mind that in some measure is the rule of good and evil; this law must have a lawgiver, the transgression of this law excites the dread of punishment, and this operation of conscience is univer

Chapter 41

64. On what argument did Descartes depend for the proof of this truth?

He held that the idea of God was impressed on the mind of man by the Deity Himself. And that as we have an idea of an infinite being, that of which this idea is the type must also exist.

Chapter 42

65. In what way do atheists attempt to evade the arguments in proof of a god?

Modern atheists endeavored to maintain the eternity of the world and its inhabitants; ancient atheists, admitting the world was formed in time, deny that it is the work of an intelligent agent, but the result of a fortui

Chapter 43

67. How can the absurdity of an infinite succession of dependent beings be proved?

It is proved by the argument of the chain of an infinite number of links that it would be absurd to say supported itself when we cannot discover the least tendency to self-support, though we ascend it as high as our thou

Chapter 44

68. Have there been any speculative atheists?

Yes, some few among both the ancient and modern philosophers have professed themselves to be atheists. Atheism has even had its martyrs. Lucilio Vanini,2 a native of Naples and teacher of atheism in France, was condemned

Chapter 45

69. How do you know that God is a being of infinite perfection?

It is a dictate of nature, a first principle that must be taken for granted and that indeed is included in the very definition of the term God. 2 [Lucilio Vanini (1585–1619) was an Italian philosopher, physician, free-th

Chapter 46

71. Is the unity of God a dictate of natural theology?

If we admit that it is taught by the light of nature that God is infinitely perfect, it must follow that nature teaches His unity, as infinite perfection excludes the idea of superiority or equality in any other being. B

Chapter 47

72. How is the spirituality of God demonstrated?

It is demonstrated that He is entirely different from matter, as matter is inert essentially, but God must be active essentially. Spirit is the noblest of substances with which we are acquainted; we therefore ascribed it

Chapter 48

74. How does it appear that He is wise?

It is manifested by the variety and beauty of His works, by the fitness of creatures for their end, and in the subordination of one creature to another. Wisdom is the right use of knowledge.

Chapter 49

76. Does the goodness of God appear evidenced from His works?

It is manifested in the provision He has made for the happiness of His creatures, in the pleasures of animal life, and in the intellectual powers of man. The air, earth, and sea are full of animated happy beings.

Chapter 50

78. Do all men agree in this truth?

Mankind in general does, as appears from every nation having some form of religious worship, though there are doubtless individuals who question the propriety of praising God or the efficacy of addressing Him in prayer.

Chapter 51

80. Can we learn the justice, holiness, and truth of God from a survey of His works?

These attributes, properly speaking, cannot be said to be capable of demonstration from the works of God. We are led to ascribe justice to God from the dictates of conscience and the sentiments of justice in our own brea

Chapter 52

81. Does it teach that the wicked will be punished?

Yes, reason teaches that it shall be well with the righteous and ill with the wicked. That the doctrine of future punishment is a part of natural religion appears from its being prevalent in all nations and ages; its tru

Chapter 53

86. In what respects is natural theology defective?

It cannot teach us the true character of God, the method of reconciliation to Him by an atonement, the nature and extent of our duties to the Supreme Being, [or] our destiny in a future state, and it is defective in cert

Chapter 54

89. Was not revelation necessary to give a greater certainty to the truths of natural religion?

Yes, as the greatest men have only been doubtful of some of the most important branches of true religion, such as the immortality of the soul, and so on, and as the sophistry of man’s deceitful heart would teach him to q

Chapter 55

91. Was not revelation necessary to inform us whether God was reconcilable to sinners, and on

what terms? The delay of punishment might excite in the sinner some hope that God would show mercy, but reason could never discover that a just God could pass by transgression. And we see all men erring in regard to the

Chapter 56

93. How can it be proved that a revelation has been made?

It is evident that a revelation is practicable, and we have seen that from the nature and situation of man, it is both probable and necessary. And that it has been made is certain from the internal and external evidences

Chapter 57

3. That such a system of religion and morality could not possibly have been the work

of any man or set of men, much less of the obscure and illiterate persons who actually did discover and publish it to the world. It must be from God. Second, from the external evidence of miracles and prophecy.

Chapter 58

98. How can the authority of the sacred Scriptures be established?

It rests on the credibility of the apostles and prophets as witnesses of facts and as deliverers of doctrines; and since them, it is supported by the strongest historical evidence. -- 61 of 215 -- 61

Chapter 59

100. What is a miracle?

It means in the original import of the word, “a wonder”; more definitely, it is an effect contrary to the established constitution or course of things, or a sensible deviation from the known laws of nature.

Chapter 60

102. How do miracles prove a divine revelation?

They are the testimonies of God in favor of the truth they are wrought to maintain. Neither can their authority be diminished by observing that even demons have performed miracles. For this objection bears only against t

Chapter 61

104. What was Hume’s argument against miracles, and how is it answered?

He maintained it to be contrary to experience that a miracle should be true but not contrary to experience that testimony should be false. Therefore the argument against miracles he thought to be stronger than any drawn

Chapter 62

105. Wherein are the miracles of the sacred Scriptures different from those related in other

books? Other miracles are defections in the number, circumstances, or character of those who bear testimony for them, or the miracles themselves are such as may be accounted for by supposing them to be merely false perce

Chapter 63

106. Can the success of the gospel be accounted for without miracles?

No, the success of such a system as the gospel, in spite of the most uniform and powerful opposition, and [in being propagated] by the weakest instruments would, except on the supposition of miracles, be a greater miracl

Chapter 64

109. Can any reason be assigned for their attempting to establish an imposture?

None, for men do not choose evil for its own sake. And from the nature of the religion which they propagated: the worldly prosperity of its first teachers was incompatible with success. As they knew themselves to be impo

Chapter 65

112. If Christianity had been an imposture, could its propagators have avoided betraying

themselves? -- 64 of 215 -- 64 They could not. The history they record is so long and circumstantial that their perfect harmony appears not only to require the truth of what they communicate but also a superintending c

Chapter 66

113. If miracles are important to prove a revelation, why have they ceased?

Because their frequency would destroy their authority, since it would then be difficult to distinguish the interruptions from the regular course of nature. Besides, there may be reasons with which we are not acquainted w

Chapter 67

115. If miracles should now be wrought in favor of doctrines opposite to the Bible, what would

be the consequence? It is impossible that miracles of the first class should be wrought in opposition to the Bible since God cannot deny Himself, and the tendency of miracles of the second kind being bad proves their ori

Chapter 68

120. What particular prophecies have been remarkably fulfilled?

Of the deluge; of the number of Abraham’s posterity; of the superiority of Jacob over Esau; of the destruction of Nineveh, Babylon, Jericho, Jerusalem; of the Messiah, the time of His coming as mentioned in Daniel, His c

Chapter 69

120. Can it be proved that these prophecies were written before the events occurred to which

they refer? Yes, they are found in the most ancient book in the world, preserved by those who are unfriendly to the cause many of them are produced to support. -- 66 of 215 -- 66

Chapter 70

123. Have there been any true prophecies besides those contained in the Bible?

It is very probable that many predictions uttered by men divinely inspired were never recorded in the Bible, but as the knowledge of futurity belongs only to God, there never could have been a true prophecy not derived d

Chapter 71

4. The truth of the event may often be accounted for by the skillfulness of the prophet or

prophets in conjecturing, or by the assistance of demons whose wonderful sagacity and great experience might enable them to conjecture what was future with considerable certainty. The books of the Sibyls were merely a co

Chapter 72

126. How do the matter, scope, and style of the sacred Scriptures prove their divinity?

2 [Antoninus Pius (AD 86–161) was a Roman emperor.] 3 [Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) was an ancient Roman scholar and writer.] 4 [Titus Livius (64 or 59 BC–AD 17) was a Roman historian.] 5 [Lucius Tarquinius Superbu

Chapter 73

127. Is there any evidence to be derived from Jewish and heathen authors?

Yes, Tacitus, Suetonius, the younger Pliny, and Juvenal8 all speak of the Christians, and Tacitus especially gives a succinct account of their origin. There is in Josephus9 several allusions to the Christian history; the

Chapter 74

128. Are there any contradictions in the sacred Scripture?

There is a most wonderful harmony in all the sacred writers, considering their circumstances, such as admits of no other explanation than a divine superintendence. Those inconsistencies that do exist may in general be ac

Chapter 75

131. Do the sentiments, customs, and manners mentioned or alluded to in the sacred Scriptures

agree with what is known of Eastern nations? Very exactly, even as they are at the present day, for in the East, national character and manners have changed much less than in the West. 11 [Alexander probably has in mind

Chapter 76

132. What is inspiration, and into how many kinds is it divided?

Any supernatural influence on the mind of man that enables him to discover truth or to understand it, which by the exertion of his natural powers he would not have discovered or understood so clearly, may be called inspi

Chapter 77

133. What is meant by inspiration of immediate suggestion?

That by which the Spirit of God reveals particular truths to the mind immediately. This revelation may be of words as well as of things, or the truth may be revealed and it may be left to the person inspired to clothe it

Chapter 78

134. What is meant by superintendency and elevation?

Superintendency is that by which the Spirit influences the inspired person to write or speak such things as he may know by the common means of acquiring information but which preserves him from the errors incident to hum

Chapter 79

4. Many things in Scripture must be considered a direct revelation from God, both as to

the ideas and words, such as laws and positive institutions; prophecies, whether literal or symbolical; and to this class belong also the discourses and sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ, who was the great medium of commu

Chapter 80

6. It is not necessary to suppose that, in writing such parts of the Scriptures, the very

words were suggested to them, as the truth of the facts and not the beauty or sublimity of the language was the object in view, and the great variety of style in the sacred -- 73 of 215 -- 73 Scriptures evinces that th

Chapter 81

7. Many compositions contained in Scripture are of a devotional and moral kind, such as

psalms and prayers. These, when they proceed from pious men, are to be considered as inspired, though we are not to consider every declaration or discourse in the sacred Scriptures as inspired, as those of Job’s friends,

Chapter 82

8. The last class of Scripture truths are such as contain reasonings and discussions on

particular points, such as the epistles of the apostles. Here we think that the writers were under a divine guidance so as to be preserved from error, but in the choice of words and in the particular style of writing and

Chapter 83

6. By Urim and Thummim, and voices, or as the Jews say2 בת קול.

2 ]For the urim and thummim, see Ex. 28:30 and Num. 27:21. The Hebrew above is pronounced “bat kohl” and literally means “daughter of a voice,” or, “the proceedings of a voice,” namely God’s voice. The term was given by

Chapter 84

138. Are the divine attributes the same with the divine essence?

They are, for were they not, God would be neither supremely simple nor perfect since He would be made up of different attributes really distinct. Neither could He be immutable were His attributes distinguishable from His

Chapter 85

142. Is there any objection to this distribution of the divine attributes?

It has been objected that of those attributes called incommunicable, some faint resemblance is to be found in creatures. Thus finite duration is some image of infinite duration as much as finite power of omnipotence. --

Chapter 86

150. What is the import of these names?

יהוה signifies “self-existence” [and] “eternity” from הוה; אל imports “strength” from איל [help], אלה [God] a cultu [from the cult]; שדי “all-sufficient,” if from שדה “all mighty”; “to pour forth,” if from שד ה vastavit

Chapter 87

153. How may the unity of God be demonstrated?

2 See Horae Solitariae. -- 78 of 215 -- 78 It may be proved from His self-existence and infinity. The unity of God means that there neither is nor can be more than one individual divine substance. It is plainly declare

Chapter 88

154. How is the spirituality of God evinced?

The spirituality of God is His immateriality, and it comprises a negative and positive idea. The first consists in removing from our idea of God the known properties of matter. The second in referring to Him the powers o

Chapter 89

158. What is meant by the “life” of God?

The most perfect kind of existence, comprehending both being and blessedness, by which He not only is and is happy but also is the source of existence and happiness. God is life essentially, “The Father has life in Himse

Chapter 90

163. Is He present in empty space beyond the limits of creation?

Yes, for He might create other worlds beyond the bounds of those already made, and He would be essentially present in them as well as in ours. Whatever pertains to God is infinite, but were His essence contained within a

Chapter 91

170. Is immutability a divine perfection?

Immutability is that perfection by which all possibility of change is denied in the deity. Malachi 3:6, “I am the LORD, I change not”; Hebrews 13:8, “Jesus Christ the same yesterday today and forever.” The immutability o

Chapter 92

172. Is immutability of will reconcilable with liberty?

Yes, for the liberty of God’s will does not consist so much in indifference as in independence on all things without Himself. What God is, He chooses to be, though He is what He is immutably; and to be immutably good is

Chapter 93

173. How can the repentance of God be reconciled with immutability?

This language is used in accommodation to the weakness of our capacity in the same manner as the several members of the body are in Scripture referred to God. When, therefore, God is said to repent, it is nothing more th

Chapter 94

174. How can the nonfulfillment of threatenings be reconciled with immutability?

All these threatenings are conditional, though the condition may not have been expressed; and they are intended more to declare what could be the result of natural causes or the inseparable connection between demerit and

Chapter 95

178. Is there any Scientia Media [middle knowledge]? 3

This signifies a middle species of knowledge between the two just mentioned, differing from the knowledge of intelligence (or natural knowledge), because it relates to future 3 [In short, middle knowledge served the grou

Chapter 96

180. Does the knowledge of God extend infallibly to contingencies?

Anything is said to be contingent in the language of theology that in the nature of things might have been otherwise than it is. It refers not to the event that is certain but to the mode of production. That God knows th

Chapter 97

184. Does God will anything freely?

5 [The difference is that noetical, for Alexander (see #402), refers to a knowledge of things through a simple intuition unmediated through anything or the things themselves, which knowledge God alone has. Dianoetical re

Chapter 98

2. That of indifference

In the first sense, what God wills most necessarily, He wills freely. But in the second also He wills all created things freely. For all created things are with respect to God contingent; that is, He might will or not wi

Chapter 99

185. Is the will of God properly divided into secret and revealed?

Yes, the first refers to the will that lies hid in God, the last to that made known in the law and gospel. The first has for its object all things God has determined to effect or permit, the second all that relates to ou

Chapter 100

186. What other terms are used to express this distinction?

Decretive and preceptive, ευδοκιας and ευαιρεστιας [“approval” and “good pleasure”]. These are derived from Scripture: the first, [from] Matthew 11:26; the second, [from] Romans 12:2; Ephesians 5:10; also beneplaciti et

Chapter 101

187. Is there no contrariety in these two wills?

No. The decretive will determines the event; the preceptive prescribes the duty. They do not contradict each other, because they have different objects, and though God may will that event should take place contrary to Hi

Chapter 102

188. Is the will of God properly distinguished into antecedent and consequent?

No. By the first is understood that by which God wills something to a rational creature prior to any act of the creature; the second is that by which He wills something after some act or many acts of the creature. Thus t

Chapter 103

190. Can any cause be assigned for the divine will? Can any reason?

The will of God is the first cause, the cause of all things, and consequently it can have no cause prior to it. But as God does everything most wisely, He must have reasons for His volitions though they be hidden from us

Chapter 104

191. Is the will of God the primary rule of right and wrong?

It is as it regards man because God is perfectly good, but not as it respects God Himself, for God wills many things because they are good in themselves. Were the will of God the only rule of right and wrong, He might ma

Chapter 105

192. How does it appear that justice is a divine attribute?

Justice is that attribute which disposes God to render to Himself and all His creatures that which is equal and right. Psalm 11:7: “The righteous Lord loves righteousness.” His justice appears in His giving righteous law

Chapter 106

199. What is love of benevolence, what of beneficence, what of complacency?

The first is that by which God from eternity wished well to His creatures, the second that by which He does them good in time, the last is that by which He delights in them on account of some rays of His own image He fin

Chapter 107

200. By what considerations is the love of God recommended to us?

By the majesty of Him who loves, by the vanity and unworthiness of its recipients, by the dignity of Him in whom we are loved, and by the multitude and richness of the blessings that flow from it.

Chapter 108

204. How is the truth of God evinced?

It is that essential attribute by which God is infinitely removed from all falsehood and deceit. It is evinced by the sense of the excellence of truth found in the minds of His creatures, by the fulfillment of prediction

Chapter 109

205. Can it be proved from the sacred Scriptures?

Romans 3:4: “Yea, Let God be true and every man a liar.” Psalm 31:5: “Into your hands I commit my spirit: You have redeemed me, O Lord God of truth.” Psalm 100:5: “For the Lord is good, his mercy is everlasting, and his

Chapter 110

206. What is the distinction between the truth and faithfulness of God?

The truth of God consists in the exact agreement of His words and works with His thoughts, inclination, and will. His faithfulness consists in the exact correspondence of -- 92 of 215 -- 92 His works with His declarati

Chapter 111

209. Is omnipotence an attribute of God?

Yes, though the power and will of God do not differ essentially, but the first is more extensive than the latter. It is divided into ordinate and absolute: the latter is that by which He is able to do what He will not do

Chapter 112

210. Can God do anything?

Yes, anything not repugnant to His nature, nor involving a contradiction. 6 [Stephen Charnock (1628–1680) was an English Puritan divine who wrote the classic on the existence and attributes of God: Discourses upon the Ex

Chapter 113

217. Could God deny Himself or act inconsistently with His perfections?

2 Timothy 2:13: “If we believe not, yet He abides faithful: He cannot deny Himself.” 7 [Alexander may be referring to making a stone that can sense things. However, if it could sense things, then, by definition, it would

Chapter 114

225. Is God infinitely happy?

Yes, for His independence and omnipotence place Him beyond the reach of all external evil, and His infinite perfection and holiness forbid the supposition of any cause of pain within Himself; but if happy at all, He must

Chapter 115

228. Is the doctrine of a Trinity of persons in the unity of the divine essence inconsistent with

reason? It is not contrary to reason, though beyond its reach. A doctrine is properly said to be contrary to reason when it contradicts some first principle of reason or some conclusion derived by demonstration from firs

Chapter 116

229. Has the doctrine of a Trinity in deity been prevalent among ancient nations?

Yes. Evident traces of the doctrine can be discovered in the mythology of almost every 1 Waterland against Claude, Question 22. [Daniel C. Waterland (1683–1740) was an Anglican theologian who was anti-latitituinarian and

Chapter 117

230. Is the word Trinity to be found in sacred Scripture, and is it proper to use?

The word itself is not found in sacred Scripture, but it still should be used because of its utility, in defining the precise meaning of those who receive the doctrine it contains. It is absolutely necessary in expoundin

Chapter 118

4. From the liberation from Egypt, which is also ascribed to each of the divine

persons: “I am the Lord your God which brought you out of the land of Egypt.” Yet in Exodus 3:2; 23:20; 32:34, the Angel of the Lord is said to have done it. That this Angel was also God, appears from his being called th

Chapter 119

232. Is it a fundamental doctrine in the Christian system?

Yes, so far as to believe there is but one God, that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit having the divine perfections ascribed to them are that God, though distinguished from each other by those acts and relations we are a

Chapter 120

1. From John 17:3: “This is eternal life, that they might know You, the only true

God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent.” 2 [See, for instance, Peter Allix, The Judgment of the Ancient Jewish Church against the Unitarians in the Controversy upon the Holy Trinity and the Divinity of Our Blessed Savi

Chapter 121

3. All divine persons are and must be one and the same being, but every created

person is a distinct being. Brown3 defines a person, “A thinking substance, which can act by itself.” Calvin’s4 definition is a “Subsistentia in the essence of the Deity, by which it is related to others, yet distinguish

Chapter 122

235. Is the distinction of persons real or modal?

The divine persons are said to differ from the divine essence ut modus a re [according to the mode of the thing], being the thing itself with personal properties. It is also real and essential.

Chapter 123

237. By what properties are the persons of the Trinity distinguished?

They are distinguished: 3 [John Brown of Haddington (1722–1787) was a divine of the Scottish Secession Church. A Compendious View of Natural and Revealed Religion, book 2, ch. 2.] 4 [John Calvin (1509–1564) was an influe

Chapter 124

2. By their external operations

First, the Father is said to be unbegotten, the Son begotten, the Holy Ghost to have proceeded. Secondly, the Father is said to work of Himself, the Son to work from the Father, the Spirit from both.

Chapter 125

239. Do the terms Father and Son express the eternal relation of the first and second persons?

This was universally the opinion of Christians during the early ages of the church. Roell6 was the first, who, admitting the Godhead of the second person, denied His eternal filiation. Turretin argues for the doctrine ag

Chapter 126

5. From His being called the “image of the invisible God” (Col. 1:15 and Heb.

1:3). It is further urged in favor of this doctrine that the Son is represented as sent (1 John 4:9– 6 [Hermann Alexander Roell (1653–1718) was a Dutch Reformed professor at Franeker.] 7 [Named after Fausto Sozzini (1539

Chapter 127

241. Does the Holy Spirit proceed from the Son as well as the Father?

This question was long and warmly debated between the Greek and Latin churches; the Greeks contended that the procession was from the Father only. The Latins, that it was both from the Father and the Son. The opinion of

Chapter 128

245. Is the name Jehovah ever ascribed to Christ, and is it communicable?

This name as it expresses the incommunicable essence of the deity and implies necessary, independent, and eternal existence, is most clearly peculiar to the only true God. It is applied to Christ as Redeemer (Isa. 60:16

Chapter 129

246. What divine attributes are ascribed to Christ?

Eternity: Proverbs 8:22–23 and Micah 5:2: “his going forth were of old even from everlasting.” Revelation 1:8, “The First and the Last.” John 1:1 and 8:58. Omnipresence: “Where two or three are gathered together in my na

Chapter 130

250. How do you prove that the new creation is His proper work?

Because redeeming, calling, justifying, sanctifying, preserving, and, at last, raising sinners are all ascribed to Him in sacred Scripture: Matthew 20:28; Acts 20:28; John 5:21, 25; 10:16; Matthew 9:6; Isaiah 53:11; Colo

Chapter 131

251. Do the miracles of Christ prove His divinity?

Yes, because some of these required almighty, and hence incommunicable, power, yet they were performed by His own inherent virtue, and thus the apostles declare that they act in the name and through the power of Christ (

Chapter 132

252. What worship is ascribed to the Son in the sacred Scriptures?

Divine, as Hebrews 1:6: “Let all the angels of God worship Him.” Psalm 2:12: “Kiss the Son.” John 5:22: “The Father has given all judgment to the Son, that all men might honor the Son even as they honor the Father.” Reve

Chapter 133

253. Did He permit divine worship to be paid Him when on earth?

Matthew 2:11, The wise men of the east “fell down and worshiped him”; so did Nathaniel and Thomas and His disciples when He ascended. He required this worship in commanding His disciples to believe in Him as they believe

Chapter 134

255. Is the famous text 1 John 5:78 a part of authentic Scripture?

This question has been very much disputed. The text has been defended by Bengelius,9 Mills,10 Horseley11 and others, and opposed by Father Simon,12 Wetstein,13 Griesbach,14 and the majority of modern commentators. The te

Chapter 135

256. Are the texts Acts 20:2817 and 1 Timothy 3:1618 authentic as contained in our Bible?

With respect to the last mentioned, it is objected that it is not found in all the Greek codices, nor in the Syriac, Arabic, or Latin versions as it is in our copies, but is written “he was manifested” [as opposed to “Go

Chapter 136

257. Have any important texts been made to support the divinity of Jesus Christ by attending to

the Greek article? Yes. It has been ascertained that και19 is often exegetical as well as copulative and that 17 [Acts 20:28: “Take heed therefore unto yourselves, and to all the flock, over the which the Holy Ghost hath

Chapter 137

258. What light arises on this subject by comparing the texts of the Old and New Testament?

It is found that the names, works, and titles which in the Old Testament are ascribed to the true God are in the New Testament applied to Jesus Christ. Compare Isaiah 7:14 with Matthew 1:23; Isaiah 63:11 with Luke 2:11;

Chapter 138

263. How does it appear that they are equal in all respects?

This necessarily results from their respective divinity. They have the same names, worship, works, and nature, and therefore must be equal and in essence the same. Those passages of sacred Scripture in which any inferior

Chapter 139

266. Are the divine decrees essentially or accidentally in the divine nature?

-- 113 of 215 -- 113 They cannot be considered as accidents in the divine nature, for this would be inconsistent with simplicity, contrary to absolute perfection, and opposed to immutability, for accidents are the root

Chapter 140

267. Are all the decrees of God from eternity?

Yes, because this is attributed to them in the sacred Scriptures, as when the kingdom is said to be prepared for the righteous “from the foundation of the world” (Matt. 25:34), also [in that the righteous are said to be]

Chapter 141

268. Are the decrees of God immutable?

Yes. There may be changes in the external dispensations of His providence, but there can be none in His purpose, because this would argue some defect in His foreknowledge, wisdom, or power. “The counsel of the Lord stand

Chapter 142

269. Are the decrees of God wise and free?

-- 114 of 215 -- 114 Yes. This appears from His wisdom and sovereignty manifested in the execution of them. For whatever perfections God manifests in His works, these He designed in His eternal purpose to glorify. Roman

Chapter 143

273. Does the decree of God make Him the author of sin?

No, because the decree, though it may render sin certain, is not the cause of sin, since it neither imports the evil disposition from whence it flows nor intimates the least approbation of it, but is merely permissive. T

Chapter 144

274. How are the decrees of God conversant about the free acts of moral agents?

God uses all things agreeably to the nature He has given them. He works with necessary causes in one way and with contingent causes in another, violating the nature of neither, yet accomplishing His purposes by both.

Chapter 145

276. What is a permissive decree?

Such as relates to sinful actions. “A permissive [decree] determines the event of the evil permitted and overrules it to a good end, contrary to the intention both of the work and the worker.” Fisher’s2 Catechism [Q. 7.2

Chapter 146

277. Are all things, even the most minute, decreed?

Nothing is so vast or so minute as to be beyond the limits of God’s providence or plan. The hairs of our heads are numbered, and a sparrow falls not to the ground without the notice of our heavenly Father [Matt. 10:29–30

Chapter 147

278. Does the word predestination include reprobation as well as election?

In the sacred Scriptures the word is more frequently used in application to election only, but most divines now extend it to embrace both because the word προοριζειν is often used in reference to wicked actions and becau

Chapter 148

279. Were angels predestinated as well as men?

Yes: Paul says to Timothy, “I charge you before God and the elect angels” (1 Tim. 5:21). If some were elected or chosen, it implies that others were left or reprobated, who are said to be reserved in chains and darkness

Chapter 149

2. If man, as creatable, was the object of predestination, then either all creatable

men or only a part of them must have been predestinated; but it is evident that 1 [Girolamo Zanchi (1516–1590) was an influential Italian, Reformed theologian, and professor.] 2 [Also known as infralapsarianism. Alexande

Chapter 150

281. Does not a wise agent always determine the end before the means?

This principle is the ground of the famous axiom of Twisse,5 “That which is last in execution was first in design,” which Turretin says holds with regard to the ultimate end, but not to all others (which would prove that

Chapter 151

283. What is the sublapsarian doctrine, and wherein does it differ from the other?

The sublapsarian doctrine is that the creation and permission of the fall of man were decreed before his election or reprobation. The first of these [views, supralapsarianism,] makes man as creatable and fallible (or to

Chapter 152

284. Is there at bottom any difference between these two systems?

None. The purposes of God in reference to men may be viewed in the following order:6 6 [This “solution” is very similar to that of Peter van Mastricht (1630–1706). Heinrich Heppe summarizes and quotes Mastricht in Reform

Chapter 153

285. Did not God determine all things by one most simple act?

Yes, the decrees of God may be considered as one most perfect purpose, which destroys all debate relative to their order. and to fall]; by reason of the third homo creatus et lapsus [man as created and fallen]; by reason

Chapter 154

286. What is election, and of how many kinds?

This word sometimes signifies a vocation [calling] to an office, sometimes a selection of a whole people to be in covenant with God, also the gracious act of the Holy Spirit whereby men are separated from the world (John

Chapter 155

289. Is it the same thing to be the foundation of salvation and of election?

No, Christ is not only the foundation but the sole foundation of salvation, though not of election. For many more causes are requisite for salvation than for election, and the means of election are the causes of salvatio

Chapter 156

290. Has the act of election no respect to Christ?

Yes, it regards Him as the grand means of its accomplishment. For salvation never was appointed to man but in reference to Christ, and God, by the same act by which He determined to redeem His children, determined to sen

Chapter 157

2. Election is of the sole good pleasure of God and not of works, Romans 9:11,

“that He the purpose of God according to election might stand not of works but -- 123 of 215 -- 123 of Him that calls.” [Romans 9:16,] “So then it is not of him that wills nor of him that runs, but of God who shows mer

Chapter 158

292. What is meant in the Scriptures by the foreknowledge that precedes election?

This is not a mere theoretical knowledge but also practical, implying approbation and affection; in this sense it is frequently used in the Scripture (John 10:14). That this foreknowledge is not a mere prescience [forekn

Chapter 159

293. Is election certain and immutable?

Yes, because the decree of election, like all the other decrees of God, are immutable, “My counsel stands firm, and I will perform all my pleasure” (Isa. 46:10). “The gifts and calling of God are without repentance” (Rom

Chapter 160

295. May believers be assured of their election in this life?

This can be known not by ascending into heaven and reading the Book of Life but by perusing the book of conscience. Turretin resolves the case into a practical syllogism, the major of which is in the mind and the minor i

Chapter 161

296. Will this not lead to security and licentiousness?

No, far from it, because nothing can be a greater incentive to piety than a lively sense of the love of God and of the benefits freely bestowed upon us [who are] no better than others involved in the same ruin with ourse

Chapter 162

297. How do you prove that the decree of God to save believers and to condemn unbelievers

does not comprehend the whole of the decree of election?1 First, because predestination in the Scriptures always refers to persons and not qualities. “Many are called, but few are chosen” (Matt. 20:16). “Whom He did fore

Chapter 163

298. Is there in God a general will to save all men?

No, which is proved from the decree of election and reprobation, which is inconsistent with this general will. Secondly, if God did will the salvation of all, would He not will also the means necessary to their salvation

Chapter 164

301. Does this doctrine discourage the use of means?

-- 127 of 215 -- 127 It ought not, for the end, though fixed, can be obtained only by the use of appointed means; to neglect therefore the one is to forfeit the other. Besides, those who urge this excuse for negligence

Chapter 165

306. Is preterition founded on the sin of its object?

Yes, if considered separately—that is, it is necessary that the object of preterition be sinful; but if considered comparatively, sin is not the foundation of the act of preterition—that is, it is not the cause of one ra

Chapter 166

307. Is the foresight of unbelief and impenitence the cause of one’s being left rather than

another? This [being left] is to be referred to the mere good pleasure of God as appears from Romans 9:18, “whom He wills, He hardens”, also from the case of Jacob and Esau and the figure of the potter. Thus our Savior s

Chapter 167

308. What is the positive act of reprobation?

This includes a destination to perdition and to the intermediate steps of blindness of mind and hardness of heart, of those whom God had seen proper to leave in the state of corruption brought on by the fall of man.

Chapter 168

312. Has not this doctrine a tendency to lead men to despair?

1 [This is a significant emendation. If Hodge, following Alexander, had left effect, it would imply that God's reprobation produces unbelief (something sinful, which is contrary to the goodness of God). Using the word co

Chapter 169

313. Are the offers of mercy to all men consistent with the reprobation of some?

Yes, because these offers are not intended as intimations of His will to save all to whom they are made, but to declare the way of salvation and to exhibit their duty to accept of it. Besides, God’s requiring obedience f

Chapter 170

314. Ought the doctrine of predestination to be publicly preached?

Yes. Because Christ and [His] apostles taught it publicly: Matthew 11:20–25; John 8:17; 16:17.2 Secondly, because it is one of the most important truths of the gospel, being the foundation of our gratitude and humility t

Chapter 171

315. How ought it to be preached?

With the greatest moderation and prudence, being mindful to keep within the limits prescribed in the sacred Scriptures and not being wise above what is written. Respect also should be had to persons, times, and places, n

Chapter 172

319. What is the difference between mediate and immediate creation?

Immediate creation is simple production ex nihilo [out of nothing]. Mediate creation is the molding of matter already existing, but so crude as to be within the power of no second cause to arrange it.

Chapter 173

321. Does not creation imply a change in God?

No. Because it is an external-transient act from God and not in God. It implies no new -- 133 of 215 -- 133 will, nor perfection, but is merely the eternal will and determination of God going into effect. The change is

Chapter 174

322. Is the creating power communicable to any creature?

No. First, because it is ascribed to God alone, Isaiah 44:7, 24, “I am Jehovah who made all things, who stretched out the heavens alone, and spread abroad the earth by Myself.” And thus the name Creator is given to Him a

Chapter 175

324. How can it be demonstrated that this world was not eternal?

It is proved first by those passages that expressly declare the world to have been created, as “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth,” [Gen. 1:1] and those which express the eternity of God by declaring

Chapter 176

326. Was the world created in a single moment or in six days?3

Augustine4 was of opinion that the world was created in a moment, and [that] the days mentioned by Moses refer to the knowledge of angels, but this is opposed to the simple 3 [The gap theory, which posited a long and und

Chapter 177

327. What was the order of creation in the six successive days?

In the first day were created heaven, earth, and light. By the first of these is meant particularly the “third heavens” [2 Cor. 12:2]; by the “earth,” chaotic matter; by light, a lucid body collected in one part of the h

Chapter 178

329. Is there any evidence that man existed before Adam?

-- 136 of 215 -- 136 None, and the whole current of Scripture is against the opinion: 1 Corinthians 15:45, “The first man was made a living soul;” Eve is called the mother of all living (Gen. 3:20). He must have been th

Chapter 179

330. Was man created in puris naturalibus [pure nature], that is, without moral qualities?

No: First, because man was made in the image of God and thus good and righteous (Eccl. 7:29). Secondly, because he was made for the glory and worship of God (Prov. 16:4; Rom. 11:36), for which both wisdom and holiness we

Chapter 180

331. In what did the image of God in which man was created consist?

It consisted neither in any participation of the divine essence (which can be asserted only of the Son), nor in any similitude in outward appearance, but in his nature, righteousness, dominion, and immortality— To the fi

Chapter 181

332. Was the first man immortal before the fall?

Yes, because Man was made in the image of God, which supposes immortality. Secondly, because if Adam was holy, he ought to be immortal, since God has connected inseparably righteousness and life, sin and death; and from

Chapter 182

333. Was original righteousness natural or supernatural?

Natural, that is, it was necessary to the perfection of his nature, and was one of the natural gifts conferred on man in the state of integrity, but [it] did not belong essentially to nature. There is a difference betwee

Chapter 183

334. Are human souls created immediately [by God] or propagated ex traduci [by being carried

over (from the parents to the child)]?5 Turretin and most other divines embrace the opinion of immediate creation and argue in favor of it from first, the law of creation; second, the testimony of Scripture; third, from

Chapter 184

336. Is the soul of man immortal in its own nature?

Yes: All Scripture is founded upon the immortality of the soul (Matt. 22:32; 10:28), and those places in which eternal life is promised, or eternal death threatened; from the providence of God; His truth and wisdom requi

Chapter 185

338. When were angels created?

This is not a subject of revelation. Most divines suppose they were included [in] the works of the six days, the principal argument in favor of which is that what was before the foundation of the world is, in the languag

Chapter 186

339. What is the meaning of the word providence?

The corresponding Greek word is προνοια [forethought, or provident care] from προτερον [prior] νοει [perceive], and has been considered as including the foreknowledge, decree, and government of God. But more properly it

Chapter 187

341. What opinion did the wiser heathen entertain on this subject?

Plato says, “quod sic currant omnia, parva et magna” [“as all things run along, small and great”]. Aristotle says, “Whatever a pilot, charioteer, leader, lawgiver, general are in their respective situations, the same is

Chapter 188

342. What is the doctrine of Scripture on the subject of providence?

7 [Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65) was a Roman Stoic philosopher.] 8 [Cicero (106 BC–43 BC) was a Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher.] -- 142 of 215 -- 142 The Scriptures uniformly represent God not merely as the creator

Chapter 189

343. Can any argument be derived from the nature of God in favor of a providence?

Yes, because His interference is as necessary for the support as for the creation of the world, and from Him all second causes derive their efficacy. The doctrine may also be inferred from His wisdom, power, and goodness

Chapter 190

345. Does not every argument for the existence of God prove His providence?

Yes, they are inseparably connected: if there is a God, He must be everywhere present, beholding the evil and the good, and if present, must be actively so. Hence, the sacred writers distinguish the true God from idols b

Chapter 191

346. Does the doctrine of providence destroy contingency?

In theological language, contingency is opposed to necessity, and everything that in the nature of things might be otherwise than it is, is said to be contingent. This the providence of God does not remove, because thing

Chapter 192

347. Does it take away liberty and the use of means?

No, for the certainty it induces is merely hypothetical, arising from the decree of God, and implies no coaction on the will, which acts inevitably while it acts freely. In respect to the use of means, the certainty of t

Chapter 193

349. How can the prosperity of the wicked and the calamities of the pious consist with

providence? Although the justice and providence of God require that it should be well with the righteous and ill with the wicked, they do not require that it should always manifestly be thus. For there is great wisdom in

Chapter 194

351. What is fate: physical, mathematical, stoical, and Christian?

The word is derived from fando loquendo [its use in speaking]. The Greeks used the word ειμας μενη α μςιεω to divide, also πρωμενον ordinatum α περατοω termino. Physical fate is nothing more than the necessary connection

Chapter 195

353. Does providence extend to all things, small as well as great?

Yes, because He created all things and therefore cares for all. This is ascribed to God in the sacred Scriptures: first, generally, as Nehemiah 9:6, “Thou, even Thou art Lord alone; Thou hast made heaven and the heaven o

Chapter 196

354. Is an attention to things minute and vile incompatible with the majesty of God?

No, if He saw fit to create them, why not to preserve them? Besides, it exalts our idea of -- 146 of 215 -- 146 the wisdom and power of God, which can be exercised with equal ease over the things the most stupendous an

Chapter 197

355. How does it appear that fortuitous and contingent events are regulated by providence?

Because in the sacred Scriptures the direction of such circumstances is attributed to God, such as the falling of an axe head, a falling lot, a random arrow, and so on (Prov. 16:33; Ex. 21:13; Deut. 19:5).

Chapter 198

356. How does it appear that free, voluntary actions are subject to providence?

From Proverbs 16:1, the preparation of the heart and the answer of the tongue are from God. Proverbs 21:1, “The king’s heart is in the hand of the Lord as the rivers of water; He turns it withersoever He will.” Jeremiah

Chapter 199

358. What is meant by conservation and government?

The first implies the upholding all creatures in their particular forms, in their powers of action and in the actions themselves. The second, His superintendence of all things and His leading and directing them to their

Chapter 200

359. Is the concurrence of providence with human actions general and indifferent, or particular

and directive? Durandus10 and many of the papists thought that nothing more was necessary than that God should create and uphold the rational agent, without affording any concurrence at the time of action. The Jesuits ma

Chapter 201

5. Directing them to their appointed ends

The arguments in favor of this particular and directive concurrence are First, because in the sacred Scriptures the effects or actions of second causes are ascribed to God. Thus He is said “to have sent Joseph into Egypt

Chapter 202

360. What is the difference between moral and physical concurrence?

Moral concurrence is that in which he that concurs operates as a moral cause by persuading or dissuading of fixing or removing objects or occasions. Physical -- 149 of 215 -- 149 concurrence implies an efficacious and

Chapter 203

361. What is the difference between mediate and immediate concurrence?

Each of these are of two kinds: quoad suppositum [which has been supposed] and quoad virtutem [according to the power]. Immediate concurrence of the first kind is when no other substance intervenes between the cause and

Chapter 204

362. Does the concurrence of the deity extend only [to] the preservation of the principle of action

or also to the action itself? Turretin says it extends to both. God is the author and preserver of all creatures and gives them all their power and affords them whatever is necessary to every individual act, but no man k

Chapter 205

363. What is the difference between previous and simultaneous concurrence?

Previous concurrence is that by which God is said to influence causes, to excite creatures and induce them to act, and also to direct this action to one thing rather than another. -- 150 of 215 -- 150 Simultaneous is t

Chapter 206

364. How does it appear that a previous concurrence takes place in the operations and actions of

creatures? First, the nature of the first cause and the subordination of second causes: the first cause [God] is the first mover in every action; second causes must be acted upon in order to act, otherwise they cease to

Chapter 207

365. Does not such a concurrence infringe the liberty of the creature?

No, for there is no physical necessity imposed upon the will, but it is determined agreeably to its nature to act. In a separate or divided sense, indifference as to the event is not removed from the will, though it is a

Chapter 208

368. How can such a concurrence previous as well as simultaneous be reconciled with liberty

and contingency? It is attempted to reconcile these in some measure on the following grounds, that is, from the order of the causes among themselves and from the mode of acting proper to them, which is explained thus: Fi

Chapter 209

372. What is meant by the permission of sin?

This permission is not moral (as opposed to prohibition and [that] which implies approbation)12 but physical (as opposed to production13). Secondly, it is not merely negative, supposing only a cessation of the divine wil

Chapter 210

375. Why did God permit sin to enter into the world?

We cannot tell. The Arminians16 think one principal reason was that He did not wish to interfere with the free agency of man. This permission of sin was not contrary to justice, since He was not bound to prevent it, nor

Chapter 211

1. As it is a punishment

14 [This distinguishes the Reformed view from other views, such as in Arminianism, Lutheranism, and so on.] 15 [In that it is for a good ultimate end.] 16 [Named after Jacob Arminius (1560–1609), whose system of theology

Chapter 212

376. Is desertion included in the idea of the permission of sin?

It is, and this desertion is of two kinds: First, privative, when it consists in the withdrawing of grace before enjoyed, but which had been abused. Second, when it implies only the not affording the grace necessary to p

Chapter 213

377. Does God ever employ a positive influence in the production of evil?

Many suppose that besides the permission and desertion already mentioned, there is a certain efficacious operation in regard to evil that belongs to the Holy God. This opinion is grounded on those passages of sacred Scri

Chapter 214

378. How is providence concerned with sin as to its beginning, progress, and end?

First, as to its beginning: in permission, desertion and a certain efficacious operation of providence. As to its progress in restraining it within proper bounds: so that it should not be greater in degree, more extensiv

Chapter 215

379. Does not this concurrence with sin affect the purity of providence?

Not in the least, [not] any more than the rays of the sun are defiled by falling on things impure and corrupt. And though the same work is often ascribed to God and Satan or wicked men, yet it is in widely different resp

Chapter 216

381. Does not the blame of an action belong to the principal cause rather than to the instrument?

This principle holds in regard to homogenous17 causes (when both are positive and physical or both [are] privative and moral, as when we say that the Word sanctifies, therefore much more the Holy Spirit) but not in heter

Chapter 217

382. Is not the cause of any cause also the cause of the effects of the last cause?

Yes, in regard to adequate causes when no true and proximate cause intervenes between the thing caused and the second cause. And also in regard to essential and necessarily subordinate causes, as He who caused the sun is

Chapter 218

383. Does God ever tempt men to sin?

Temptation is twofold. The one for trial, the other of seduction; the one good, the other evil. In the latter sense, James says, “God tempts no man” [James 1:13]. When we pray that our heavenly Father would not lead us i

Chapter 219

384. Does not the permission of sin fall under the rule not to do evil that good may come [Rom.

3:8]? No, for there is a great difference between the doing and permitting of evil. 19 [“By accident” in the Aristotelian sense, in that it is not necessary by the thing’s essence.] 20 [See question #473.] -- 158 of 215

Chapter 220

387. How do men abuse the doctrine of providence in relation to things past?

First, by murmuring against it as unjust; and in the pious there is often too much impatience, opposed to the humble submission becoming children. See examples of this resignation in Job 1:21; 2:10; Psalm 39:[9–]10; 1 Sa

Chapter 221

388. How is this doctrine abused in relation to things future?

First, by too much confidence and security, leading to the neglect of the proper means for effecting their ends. Second, by anxiety and distrust. Thirdly, by placing too great or too little reliance on second causes.

Chapter 222

2. Gratitude in prosperity

21 [Named after Priscillian († c. 385), a wealthy nobleman of Roman Hispania. Priscillianism was a form of Christian asceticism, holding to gnostic-Manichaean doctrines including that matter and nature were evil.] -- 15

Chapter 223

392. How does it appear that they are created beings?

First, from those passages of sacred Scripture where it is said that God created all things and where angels are called His host, ministering spirits [Heb. 1:14], and so on. Second, it is expressly asserted in Colossians

Chapter 224

395. Does not Job 38:6–7 imply that they existed before the world?

“When the morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy,” many persons do consider this passage as intimating that they existed prior to our world. But Turretin and others suppose it means nothing m

Chapter 225

397. With what bodies did angels appear?

It cannot be easily determined. They were real bodies, but whether they were created for them at the time or belonged to men then in existence or compacted from some other -- 162 of 215 -- 162 matter cannot be ascertai

Chapter 226

399. Do they know future contingencies?

No, for these depend on the free will of God and cannot therefore be known but by revelation. This knowledge is represent[ed] as peculiar to God (Isa. 41:22; 42:8–9). Created intelligences cannot foresee things as future

Chapter 227

405. Are they subject to passions and affections?

No, so far as these arise from a sensitive nature; their loving God, hating sin, and rejoicing in the salvation of a sinner are such exercises as belong to pure spirits, not being mingled with the perturbation that accom

Chapter 228

406. What power do angels possess?

Their power, though exceedingly great, is limited. They can perform miracles of the second class.24 With respect to bodies they can operate upon them in various ways, changing their places, and so on. They can also influ

Chapter 229

408. How many hierarchies or orders do the papists suppose?

They make three hierarchies: the supreme, mediate, and ultimate; each of these are subdivided into three orders, making in all nine grades. In the supreme [hierarchy] they place cherubim, seraphim, and thrones. In the me

Chapter 230

1. Because Paul, from whom this pretended Dionysius says he received the doctrine,

25 [Dionysius the Areopagite is mentioned as a Christian convert of the apostle Paul in Acts 17:34. Pseudo- Dionysius the Areopagite was a Christian Neoplatonist who wrote in the late fifth or early sixth century AD] 26

Chapter 231

412. Is Michael a created angel or is he the Son of God?

This person is mentioned only six times in the sacred Scriptures: three in the Old Testament (viz. Dan. 10:13; 10:21; and 12:1) and three times in the New Testament (1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 9; and Rev. 12:7). There are three

Chapter 232

4. He is called “the Great Prince who stands for the people of God” (see Dan.

28 [Probably more specifically the Neoplatonist school (a strand of the larger Platonist tradition), which had its origins with Plotinus in the third century AD and involved a celestial hierarchy.] -- 166 of 215 -- 166

Chapter 233

6. The ancient Hebrews29 understood the archangel to be greater than an angel.

With them Michael is the same as Metatron, whom they call the chancellor of heaven, whose name is as the Almighty and signifies two things: Lord and Ambassador. This is the Angel by whom alone there is access to God. The

Chapter 234

4. An argument may be derived from this same passage; thus, Daniel relates that

he whom he saw clothed with linen and so on [Dan. 10:5–6] was the Son of 29 [That is, postbiblical Jews. Metatron is briefly mentioned in a few passages in the Talmud, though he primarily appears in mystical, Kabbalistic

Chapter 235

413. What is the peculiar opinion of professor Lampe32 respecting Gabriel?

He not only maintains that Michael is the Son of God but that Gabriel is the Holy Spirit. He says these two symbolical names are the only names of angels found in the sacred Scriptures and that he who supposes they belon

Chapter 236

415. What are the employments of angels?

Their duties are various as they respect God, themselves, the world, and men. In regard to God, they are employed in constant adoration and praise (Rev. 4:8; 7:11, 12) and in the most cheerful and holy obedience, “Thousa

Chapter 237

418. Is there any reason to believe that they are instruments in the government of the world?

Yes. Aristotle supposed that they were employed to roll[?]34 on the stars. It appears, however, that they are concerned in the administration of the providence of God from Jacob’s ladder [Gen. 28:12] and from Psalm 102,

Chapter 238

420. Has every individual or pious person a guardian angel?

This is a favorite opinion of the papists, and there are two passages of the sacred Scriptures commonly brought to support the doctrine. The first is Matthew 18:10, where the angels of little children are mentioned, and

Chapter 239

2. They are mentioned before the Son, not from priority of nature or existence but

[for] their parts in the plan of redemption. Perhaps this appellation is in reference to the seven churches, or [it] may contain an allusion to the variety of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. -- 172 of 215 -- 172

Chapter 240

427. Is the liberty of man in a state of sin the same as that in the state of innocence?

No, not altogether, though it is essentially. The liberty of Adam consisted in [the] ability not to sin; of man in a state of sin, in sinning freely. See Buck A. Will.35 35 [This source could not be identified.] -- 173

Chapter 241

428. Did Adam before the fall possess the power of believing in Christ?36

The Arminians answer in the negative in order to support their doctrine that a sufficiency of grace is given to every man37 to enable him to believe in Christ. For if Adam had not this, then he never lost it; and therefo

Chapter 242

3. A promise and penalty

God being Creator must be Governor and Legislator; man being a rational creature must be subject to this government and law. And as there was a promise given on the part of God in case of obedience on the part of man and

Chapter 243

430. What was the nature of this covenant?

It was a mutual agreement or stipulation in which God promised all good to man should he prove obedient. It is called a legal covenant because its condition on the part of man was the observance of the law. See App., p.

Chapter 244

433. What was the condition of this covenant?

Perfect obedience in man, and this was general, comprising the knowledge, love, and worship of God with righteousness to all around him, and special, consisting in abstaining from the forbidden fruit, in which all was ep

Chapter 245

434. What properties were required in the obedience of man?

38 [Timothy] Dwight, [Theology Explained and Defended,] vol. 1, p. 437; [Thomas] Boston on Covenant of Works [in Works, vol. 11. Boston (1676–1732) was an influential, evangelical Church of Scotland minister]. -- 175 of

Chapter 246

436. How can it be proved that the covenant contained the promise of eternal life?

First, because eternal life was annexed to obedience to the law of works. Leviticus 18:5, “Whosoever does these things shall live in them.” Matthew 19:17, “If you will enter into life keep the commandments.” Second, beca

Chapter 247

437. How does it appear that eternal death was the penalty threatened?

Because man was immortal, and the loss of God’s moral image being part of the penalty, we have here two great constituents of eternal death: sin and immortality. Besides, if mere temporal death were the penalty of the co

Chapter 248

438. Whence did the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil derive its name?

Not because it possessed or could impart the knowledge of good and evil, but at first sacramentally, as it was the sign of man’s probation and the monitor to warn him lest he should know evil by experience as he already

Chapter 249

439. Why was this tree forbidden to man?

As a peculiar test of his love, as the obligation to obedience here did not result from anything in the nature of the thing prohibited but from the command of God merely. This was proper also to remind man that though [h

Chapter 250

440. Why was the Tree of Life so called?

Bellarmine and others of the papists suppose it derived its name from its inherent power of conferring life, but like the tree of knowledge, it more probably received its title from its symbolical signification, its bein

Chapter 251

443. Why was man prohibited from use of this tree after the fall?

Because by sin he forfeited his claim to the blessing signified by this sign. The phrase “lest he eat and live forever” [Gen. 3:22] may refer to Adam’s folly in expecting life from eating what had been prohibited.

Chapter 252

445. What became of the earthly paradise?

Many of the popish writers believe it to be still in being in some unknown land and that Enoch and Elijah are there, whom they consider as the two witnesses who are come against Antichrist [Rev. 11:3]. For this, however,

Chapter 253

450. What is the guilt of sin?

Guilt is the obligation to punishment for previous transgression. This obligation may mean desert [merit] of punishment or actual exposedness to it. Hence, guilt is of two kinds: the one inseparable from sin, the other r

Chapter 254

451. Is ill desert or demerit included in the idea of guilt?

-- 181 of 215 -- 181 Not in all senses of the term guilt. Sin may be considered either in reference to the command or precept of the law, or to its sanction or annexed threatening. From its connection with the first of

Chapter 255

454. Is there any foundation for the distinction between the guilt of the fault and the guilt of the

punishment? The first is that by which the sinner is unworthy of the favor and deserving the condemnation of God. The second is that by which he is exposed to punishment and obligated to endure it. The papists say that t

Chapter 256

455. Is the death of believers a part of the penalty of the law?

-- 182 of 215 -- 182 No. It as well as the pains and afflictions of the present life are consequences of sin but are intended rather for correction than satisfaction. It is mercifully ordered that believers should die a

Chapter 257

458. What was the sin of angels by which they fell?

41 [Westminster Larger Catechism, #150: “Are all transgressions of the law of God equally heinous in themselves, and in the sight of God? All transgressions of the law of God are not equally heinous; but some sins in the

Chapter 258

459. What was the precise nature of the first sin of man?

This must not be considered as any simple or particular sin but as a general apostasy from God, including the violation of the whole moral law, as it implies unbelief and contempt of the divine command, ingratitude, prid

Chapter 259

460. How can it be accounted for that innocent man should sin?42

It is very difficult to account for the entrance of sin into a holy mind. Yet the mutability in which man was created supposes the possibility of his fall: the true cause of his sinning is found in the freedom of his wil

Chapter 260

461. Was the first sin owing to man’s being deserted of God?

The term desertion seems to imply some previous offense in the person deserted and therefore is not so proper as [the term] negation. Since no grace before given was withdrawn from Adam, but God, having at first bestowed

Chapter 261

464. Did Adam lose the image of God by the first sin?

Yes, for it was a complete apostasy or turning from God as his chief good; it was not a particular sin but a violation of the whole covenant and law because spiritual death was the penalty of the law and because man is n

Chapter 262

467. Was the first sin of Adam imputed to all his posterity?

It is, though this doctrine has been rejected by the Pelagians, Remonstrants,43 Socians,44 43 [Those who followed the theology of Jacob Arminius and remonstrated, or protested, against the Reformed doctrines of soteriolo

Chapter 263

3. Voluntary, as between friends

The first two of these constituted Adam our representative, in whose conduct it then became just that we should be involved. That he was considered as the representative of 44 [Socinians] 45 [Josué de la Place (c. 1596–1

Chapter 264

471. What is original sin?

Augustine made original sin to consist in concupiscentia, or [the] irregularity of our desires; Anselm46 in nuditate justitiae [the absence of righteousness]. Scotus47 united the two, which is correct. That is, original

Chapter 265

6. From Romans 5:12, “For by one man sin entered into the world and death by sin.”

46 [Anselm of Canterbury (1033/34–1109) was a significant philosopher and theologian of the High Middle Ages]. 47 [Duns Scotus (1266–1308) is generally considered to be one of the three most important philosopher- theolo

Chapter 266

3. The constitution of the man by the union of this negatively pure soul with a polluted

48 [See question #382.] 49 [Flacius Illyricus (1520–1575) was a Lutheran reformer from Istria (present-day Croatia).] -- 190 of 215 -- 190 body, which as some say is like an impure vessel tainting the pure liquid that

Chapter 267

475. If the soul be created pure, how can it be consistent with goodness or justice to connect it

with a polluted body? The soul is formed in the body and never had a separate existence. They, from the first moment of their existence, constitute the human being that fell in Adam and therefore justly inherit both his

Chapter 268

477. What is the sin against the Holy Ghost, and why is it unpardonable?

It is blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, not merely a sin of the heart, but one completed by words. Turretin makes it to consist 50 [Alexander limits his answers to those consistent with creationism, that God immediately

Chapter 269

4. A confirmed perseverance in the sin to the end

This sin is unpardonable not from any deficiency in the mercy of God or the merit of Christ but because it is impossible that those who commit it should be renewed unto repentance (Heb. 6:6), and without repentance there

Chapter 270

478. Can sin be the punishment of sin?

Yes, though sin that is actually sin is no part of the penalty of the law. It may, however, be either its own punishment or that of some preceding transgression, or of the sin of some other person. This [is] proved

Chapter 271

1. From 2 Samuel 12:11–12, where the sin of David is said to be punished by that

of Absalom 51 [Julius I (331/332–363) was a Roman emperor from AD 361 to 363 and was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire.] 52 [As quoted in Theodoret, Ecclesiastical History (c. 429), Book III, Ch. 20.] --

Chapter 272

4. From those passages of sacred Scripture in which the punishment and the crime

are represented as united in the same act, as in the defection of the ten tribes; in the oppression of the people by the Assyrians [Isa. 10:5–7], and so on (a punishment of one and a sin of the other); in the numbering o

Chapter 273

479. What is the will?

According to Locke, “the power or ability to prefer or choose”; according to Edwards,53 “that by which the mind chooses anything”; and according to Dr. Reid,54 “A power to determine to do or not to do things we conceive

Chapter 274

480. In what variety of meaning is the word used?

It is employed in greater or less extent by different persons. Sometimes it is used to express all the active powers of man in distinction from his intellectual powers; thus, it is used when the powers of the mind are cl

Chapter 275

481. What does every act of volition imply?

That we had the power to have acted differently or not to have acted. A necessary 53 [Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) was an American congregationalist divine and philosopher.] 54 [Thomas Reid (1710–1796) was a Scottish phi

Chapter 276

483. Are will and desire ever opposite?

It has been a question whether these two things may be opposite in relation to the same -- 195 of 215 -- 195 object. Mr. Locke and Dr. Reid maintain the affirmative, President Edwards the negative. The proper answer se

Chapter 277

484. Do we ever will what we believe to be out of our power?

No, the object of our volition must be something that we believe to be in our power and to depend upon our will. A man may desire to make a visit to the moon, but he cannot will or determine to do it, because he knows it

Chapter 278

485. What determines the will?

The will is determined by the active principles that exist and prevail in our nature when the volition is made. And according to this view our volitions are produced by principles in our own souls and are as much our own

Chapter 279

5. That the will is determined by divine agency, which is the efficient cause of our

volitions But in the view of motives, the great objection to the word motives is that it is ambiguous. It is often used to signify the same with reasons, external objects suited to our inclinations. A man is said to have

Chapter 280

487. Is indifference essential to the liberty of the will?

By indifference is meant an equilibrium in which the will is without any antecedent determination or bias to one side or the other, that the determination may be entirely from itself and owing to its power and sovereignt

Chapter 281

488. Does liberty properly belong to the will?

Liberty in common speech is power, opportunity, or advantage that anyone has to do as -- 198 of 215 -- 198 he pleases. Now liberty cannot properly be ascribed to any being or thing but what has such a faculty, power, o

Chapter 282

2. Some of the active principles that govern the will are sudden and impetuous

and act before there is time for reflection. A man whose temperament is constitutionally unstable receives from someone a blow in the face which produces instant pain. In a moment, before there is time for reflection, hi

Chapter 283

489. Is the will always determined by the state of the soul immediately antecedent?

Dr. Reid says, “That in all important determinations of the mind there must be something in the preceding state of the mind that disposes or inclines us to that determination.” If such an influence has any share in the b

Chapter 284

490. Has the will a self-determining power?

To prove that the will has no self-determining power, President Edwards observes that it must do this in the exercise of a power of willing. Therefore, every free act of choice is determined by a preceding act choosing t

Chapter 285

491. Is the will always determined by the last act of the understanding?

Some maintain that it is, or that the will always follows, the last practical judgment of the understanding. There is at least some obscurity in this answer. There may be many judgments of the understanding in relation t

Chapter 286

492. Is the will determined by the strongest motive?

Here two questions require to be previously settled. First, “What is meant by ‘motives?’” and second, “What constitutes the strength of a motive?” Mr. Edwards defines a motive to be “everything that moves, excites or inv

Chapter 287

493. Can there be volition without motive?

Here Dr. Reid asserts two things that appear to me to be incorrect: first, that the mind often wills without any motive, and second, that it often wills contrary to the strongest motive. He divides motives into rational

Chapter 288

494. What advantage would occur from the power of willing without motive or [willing]

contrary to the strongest motive? Suppose a man, the temper of whose soul is virtuous; he loves his Creator and fears to incur the accusations of his own conscience. These are his strongest motives in the moment when, by

Chapter 289

495. All things being the same precisely (both external and internal), can the volition be

different? This is the ultimate question respecting the will. Supposing all motives and circumstances external and internal to be the same, with the same person at different times, is it possible that the volition might

Chapter 290

496. What would be the effect of equal motives?

It is argued correctly that the motives being the same, the volitions will be the same also. But have we not power to change the influence of motives by directing our thoughts to other objects? Undoubtedly this is the ca

Chapter 291

497. Is there a proper distinction between animal and rational motives?

There is, and on one account [it is] very important. Animal motives, consisting in natural propensities seated in the body, act blindly and urge the will by a certain force that is proportionate to their strength. Now th

Chapter 292

498. Can they be compared as to their strength?

There may be as just a comparison between animal and rational motives as between any other. Rational motives, contrary to what Dr. Reid supposes, affect all the active principles of the mind as well as the judgment, and

Chapter 293

499. Can mere reason ever be a motive to volition?

Dr. Reid says it can. By reason he means that calm, cool principle which has an influence on our action directly contrary to passion or mere animal motives. Animal appetites impel us by a blind impulse. Reason decides wh

Chapter 294

2. Will in a larger sense is choice or preference. I prefer a free to a despotic

government; I choose a mild climate rather than a severe one. But the term will is not so properly used here; for I could not say, “I will a free government or mild climate,” these things not being within my power.

Chapter 295

5. Will in man is influenced by animal propensities as in inferior creatures, but he,

-- 213 of 215 -- 213 being endowed with reason and conscience, has other principles of action and also has other natural desires. He can, moreover, compare and reflect and consider, but when he determines, his will is c

Chapter 296

6. The power that determines the will is not an act of the soul, but [rather is] in it.

External motives and reasons have no force that they do not derive from the temper and inclinations of the soul. The soul therefore determines its own acts of will, but according to its own nature or the prevailing incli