Manual of Christian Doctrine

Chapter 1

L. BERKHOF.

Grand Rapids, Mich. -- 7 of 277 -- May 10, 1933. -- 8 of 277 -- INTRODUCTION RELIGION A. Religion a universal phenomenon. Man has been described as "incurably religious." This is but another way of saying that religi

Chapter 2

C. The seat of religion. Opinions differ very much respecting the seat

of religion in the human soul. Some lose sight entirely of the central significance of religion in the life of man, and conceive of it as located in and functioning through just one of the faculties of the soul. Others s

Chapter 3

1. ONE-SIDED VIEWS OF THE SEAT OF RELIGION. Some find the

seat of religion in the intellect. They look upon religion as a kind of knowledge, a sort of incomplete philosophy, and thus virtually make the measure of man's knowledge of God the measure of his piety. Others locate re

Chapter 4

2. THE SCRIPTURAL VIEW OF THE SEAT OF RELIGION. The only

correct and Scriptural view is that religion is seated in the heart. In Scripture psychology the heart is the center and focus of the whole moral life of man, the personal organ of the soul. Out of it are all the issues

Chapter 5

D. The Origin of Religion. The question of the origin of religion has

engaged the attention of many scholars during the previous century, and still looms large in present-day treatises on religion. Under the influence of the theory of evolution some proceed on the assumption that man devel

Chapter 6

1. NATURALISTIC VIEWS OF THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION. Some

regarded religion as the product of the cunning of priests or the craft of rulers, who played on the credulity and fears of the ignorant masses, in order to gain and maintain control over them. Others designated fetish-w

Chapter 7

2. THE SCRIPTURAL VIEW OF THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION. God's

special revelation can enlighten us as to the origin of religion. It acquaints us with the fact that religion finds its explanation only in God. If we would explain the origin of religion we must proceed on the assumptio

Chapter 8

1. THE IDEA OF REVELATION. God is the incomprehensible One.

Man cannot know Him as He is in the hidden depths of His divine being. Only the Spirit of God can search the deep things of God, 1 Cor. 1:10. It is impossible for man to have a perfect knowledge of God, for in order to p

Chapter 9

2. DISTINCTIONS APPLIED TO THE IDEA OF REVELATION. In

course of time two kinds of divine revelation were distinguished, namely, natural and supernatural, and general and special revelation. Generally speaking these two distinctions move along parallel lines; at the same tim

Chapter 10

3. DENIAL OF GOD'S REVELATION. The fact of the divine

revelation was frequently denied in one form or another. Both general and special revelation, but the former less than the latter, were the object of this denial. -- 17 of 277 -- a. Denial of general revelation. The at

Chapter 11

1. THE IDEA OF GOD'S GENERAL REVELATION. General

revelation does not come to man in the form of direct verbal communications. It consists in an embodiment of the divine thought -- 18 of 277 -- in the phenomena of nature, in the general constitution of the human mind,

Chapter 12

2. THE PRESENT ACTUAL INSUFFICIENCY OF GENERAL

REVELATION. While Pelagians, Deists, and Rationalists concur in regarding the general revelation of God as quite sufficient for the present needs of man, Roman Catholics and Protestants are agreed as to its insufficiency

Chapter 13

3. THE VALUE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF GENERAL REVELATION.

The fact that, after the fall of man, general revelation was superseded by a special revelation may easily lead to an under-valuation of the former. We should not forget, however, that God's original revelation remains o

Chapter 14

C. Special Revelation. Alongside of the general revelation in nature

and history we have a special revelation, which is now embodied in Scripture. The Bible is par excellence the book of special revelation, a revelation in which words and facts go hand in hand, the former interpreting the

Chapter 15

1. THE NECESSITY OF SPECIAL REVELATION. Through the

entrance of sin into the world God's general revelation was obscured -- 22 of 277 -- and corrupted, so that the handwriting of God in nature and in the very constitution of man is not as legible now as it was in the mo

Chapter 16

2. THE MEANS OF SPECIAL REVELATION. The means of God's

special revelation can in general be reduced to three kinds: a. Theophanies or manifestations of God. According to Scripture God is not only a God afar off, but also a God at hand. Symbolically, He dwelt between the cher

Chapter 17

3. THE CONTENTS OF SPECIAL REVELATION. There are three

points that deserve special mention in connection with the contents of God's special revelation. a. It is a revelation of redemption. Special revelation does not simply serve the purpose of conveying to man some general

Chapter 18

1. THE SENSE IN WHICH SPECIAL REVELATION AND

SCRIPTURE DIFFER. If the term "special revelation" is used to designate the direct self-communications of God, then it cannot be regarded as simply another name for the Bible. This is perfectly evident from the fact that

Chapter 19

2. THE SENSE IN WHICH SPECIAL REVELATION AND

SCRIPTURE ARE IDENTICAL. The term "special revelation" may also be applied to that whole complex of redemptive truths and facts, with its proper historical setting, that is found in Scripture and has the divine guarantee

Chapter 20

1. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR INSPIRATION. The doctrine of

inspiration, just as every other doctrine, is derived from Scripture. The Bible itself testifies abundantly to its inspiration, and favors the strictest view of inspiration, as even rationalists are willing to admit. Wri

Chapter 21

2. THE NATURE OF INSPIRATION. In discussing the nature of

inspiration attention should be called first of all to two erroneous views. a. Mechanical Inspiration. The process of inspiration has often been conceived in a rather mechanical way. It was represented as if God simply d

Chapter 22

3. THE EXTENT OF INSPIRATION. There are differences of

opinion, not only regarding the nature of inspiration, but also with respect to its extent. a. Some Claim Inspiration for the Thoughts but not for the Words. Many deny the inspiration of Scripture altogether. Others, how

Chapter 23

1. THE DIVINE AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE. The Church of Rome

as well as the Reformers ascribed divine authority to Scripture; yet they did not both mean exactly the same thing. The Roman hierarchy insisted on it that the Bible has no authority in itself, but owes its existence and

Chapter 24

2. THE NECESSITY OF SCRIPTURE. While the Roman Catholic

Church recognizes the importance and usefulness of Scripture, it does not regard it as absolutely necessary. In its estimation it is more correct to say that Scripture needs the Church than that the Church needs Scriptur

Chapter 25

3. THE PERSPICUITY OF SCRIPTURE. In the estimation of the

Church of Rome the Bible is obscure and is badly in need of interpretation even in matters of faith and practice. For that reason an infallible interpretation is needed, and this is supplied by the Church. Over against t

Chapter 26

4. THE SUFFICIENCY OF SCRIPTURE. Neither the Church of Rome

nor the Anabaptists regard the Bible as a sufficient revelation of God. The latter have a low opinion of Scripture and assert the absolute necessity of the inner light and of all kinds of special revelations, while the f

Chapter 27

1. INNATE OR INBORN KNOWLEDGE. The statement that man has

an innate knowledge of God does not merely mean that he has an inborn capacity to know God. It indicates something more than that. At the same time it does not imply that man at birth brings a certain knowledge of God wi

Chapter 28

2. ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE. Acquired knowledge, on the other

hand, is derived from God's general and special revelation. It does not arise spontaneously in the mind, but results from the conscious -- 38 of 277 -- and sustained pursuit of knowledge. It can be obtained only by the

Chapter 29

1. GOD IS A PURE SPIRIT. The Bible does not attempt to define the

being of God. The nearest approach to anything like it is found in the word of Christ to the Samaritan woman: "God is spirit," John 4:24. This means that He is essentially spirit, so that all the qualities which belong t

Chapter 30

2. GOD IS PERSONAL. The fact that God is spirit also involves his

personality, for a spirit is an intelligent and moral being, and when we ascribe personality to God, we mean exactly that He is a rational being capable of self-determination. In the present day many deny the personality

Chapter 31

3. GOD IS INFINITELY PERFECT. God is distinguished from all His

creatures by infinite perfection. He possesses His being and His virtues without any limitation or imperfection. As the infinitely perfect God, He is not only boundless or limitless, but is exalted above all His creature

Chapter 32

4. GOD AND HIS PERFECTIONS ARE ONE. Simplicity is one of the

fundamental characteristics of God. This means not only that, as a spirit, He is not composed of different parts, but also that His essence and properties are one. The being of God is not something existing by itself, to

Chapter 33

1. There are certain names which direct attention to the fact that God

is the high and exalted One, the transcendent God. 'El and 'Elohim stress the fact that He is strong and mighty, and therefore to be feared, while 'Elyon directs attention to His exalted nature as the Most High, the obje

Chapter 34

2. There are other names which point to the fact that this exalted

being condescended to enter into relations of friendship with His creatures. In patriarchal times it was especially the name Shaddai or El-Shaddai that served this purpose, Ex. 6:3. This name also stresses the divine gre

Chapter 35

1. THEOS. This is simply the word for "God," and is the most

common name employed in the New Testament. It is the common rendering of 'El, 'Elohim, and 'Elyon, though the latter is sometimes rendered "the Most High" or "the Most High God." The names Shaddai and El-Shaddai are simp

Chapter 36

2. KURIOS. This is the word for "Lord," a name that is applied not

only to God but also to Christ. It takes the place of both 'Adonai and Jehovah, though it does not have exactly the same meaning as the latter, but designates God as the possessor and the ruler of all things but particul

Chapter 37

3. PATER. It is often said that the New Testament introduced a new

name in Pater (Father). But this is hardly correct, for it is also found in the Old Testament as expressive of the special relation in which God stands to Israel. God is the Father of Israel, Deut. 32:6, Isa. 63:16, and

Chapter 38

1. THE INDEPENDENCE OR SELF-EXISTENCE OF GOD. When we

ascribe independence or self-existence to God we thereby assert that He exists by the necessity of His own being and therefore necessarily, and does not, like man, depend for his existence on anything outside of Himself.

Chapter 39

2. THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD. Scripture teaches not only the

independence but also the unchangeableness of God. He is forever the same, and therefore devoid of all change in His being, His perfections, His purposes, and His promises. This is clearly taught in such passages as Ps.

Chapter 40

3. THE INFINITY OF GOD. The infinity of God in general is that

perfection of His nature by which everything that belongs to His being is without measure or quantity. It may be considered from various points of view: a. His Absolute Perfection. This is the infinity of God with respec

Chapter 41

4. THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD. By ascribing simplicity to God we

assert that He is not composite, and is not susceptible of division in any sense of the word. It implies, among other things, that the three persons in the Godhead are not so many parts of which the divine essence is com

Chapter 42

1. THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD. The knowledge of God may be

defined as that perfection by which He, in an entirely unique manner, knows Himself and all things possible and actual. This knowledge is inherent in God and is not obtained from without. Moreover, it is always complete

Chapter 43

2. THE WISDOM OF GOD. The wisdom of God may be called a

particular aspect of His knowledge. It is the intelligence of God as manifested in the adaptation of means to ends. In virtue of it God chooses the best means for the attainment of the ends He has in -- 48 of 277 -- vi

Chapter 44

3. THE GOODNESS OF GOD. God is good in Himself; that is, He is

perfectly holy; but this is not the goodness which comes into consideration here. It is God's goodness in action, which reveals itself in doing well unto others, that is now under contemplation. It may be defined as that

Chapter 45

4. THE LOVE OF GOD. In the present day this is frequently regarded

as the most central attribute in God, in the light of which all the other divine perfections should be interpreted. But there is no sufficient reason for regarding it as more central than any of the other virtues of God.

Chapter 46

5. THE HOLINESS OF GOD. The holiness of God is first of all that

divine perfection by which He is absolutely distinct from all His creatures, and is exalted above them in infinite majesty. This is the meaning which it has in Ex. 15:11; 1 Sam. 2:2; Isa. 57:15; Hos. 11:9. We have in min

Chapter 47

6. THE RIGHTEOUSNESS OF GOD. This attribute of God is closely

related to the immediately preceding one. It is that perfection of God by which He maintains Himself over against every violation of His -- 50 of 277 -- holiness, and shows in every respect that He is the Holy One. Dif

Chapter 48

7. THE VERACITY OF GOD. The veracity of God may be described as

that perfection in virtue of which He is true in His inner being, in His revelation, and in His relation to His people. It implies that He is the true God as over against the idols, which are lies and vanity; that He kno

Chapter 49

8. THE SOVEREIGNTY OF GOD. Under this general heading we

consider God's sovereign will, or His sovereignty in planning and directing the affairs of the world and of His rational creatures; and God's sovereign power, His omnipotence, or the sovereignty of God in executing His w

Chapter 50

7. God decreed that the Jews should crucify Jesus; yet in doing this

they went contrary to the revealed will of God, Acts 2:23. It should be borne in mind, however, that in making the distinction under consideration we are using the word "will" in two different senses. By His secret will

Chapter 51

1. STATEMENT OF THE DOCTRINE. God is one in His essential

being, but in this one being there are three persons, called, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These persons are not, however, like so many persons among men three entirely separate and distinct individuals. They are rather

Chapter 52

2. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR THE TRINITY.

a. In the Old Testament. Some are of the opinion that the Old Testament contains no indications of the Trinity, but this is not correct. There are passages which indicate that there is more than one person in God, as for

Chapter 53

3. ERRONEOUS REPRESENTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. In the

early Christian Church some represented the three persons in the Trinity as three divine beings, virtually three gods. The Sabellians regarded the three persons merely as so many modes of divine action or manifestation,

Chapter 54

1. THE FATHER. The name "Father," as applied to God, is not always

used in the same sense in Scripture. It may denote the triune God (a) as the origin of all created things, 1 Cor. 8:6; Eph. 3:14, 15; Heb. 12:9; Jas. 1:17; (b) as the Father of the chosen nation of Israel, Deut. 32:6; Is

Chapter 55

2. THE SON. The second person of the Trinity is called "Son" or "Son

of God." This name is not always applied to Him in the same sense, however. Considered purely as the second person in the Trinity, He is called "the Son" because of His eternal generation by the Father, John 1:14, 18; 3:

Chapter 56

3. THE HOLY SPIRIT. With reference to the Holy Spirit the

following points demand special consideration: a. The Personality of the Holy Spirit. It is not so much the divinity as the personality of the Holy Spirit that is called in question by many. It is denied by several secta

Chapter 57

1. IT IS FOUNDED IN DIVINE WISDOM. This is implied in the

statement that God's purpose is "according to the counsel of His will," Eph. 1:11. Though there is a great deal in it that we do not understand, it is certain that God formed His plan with wisdom.

Chapter 58

2. IT IS ETERNAL. This does not merely mean that the decree was

formed before the beginning of time, but also that, while it relates to things which come to pass in the course of history, its formation is and remains an act within the divine being, and therefore in the strictest sens

Chapter 59

3. IT IS EFFICACIOUS. The fact that God made a divine plan does

not mean that He has decided to bring to pass by His own act all that is included in it; but it does mean that what He has decided will certainly come to pass, and that nothing can thwart His purpose, Ps. 33:11; Prov. 19

Chapter 60

4. IT IS UNCHANGEABLE. Man often changes his plans for various

reasons. It may be that on second thought he considers them unwise, or that he is wanting in the power to carry them out. But neither the one nor the other is conceivable in God. He does not change His plan, because He i

Chapter 61

5. IT IS UNCONDITIONAL. The decree is not in any of its particulars

dependent on anything outside of it, as, for instance, on the free -- 63 of 277 -- actions of God's moral and rational creatures, on their foreseen disobedience or foreseen faith. God has determined not only what will

Chapter 62

6. IT IS ALL-COMPREHENSIVE. It includes the good actions of

men, Eph. 2:10, their wicked actions, Prov. 16:4; Acts 2:23; 4:27, 28, contingent events, Gen. 45:8; 50:20; Prov. 16:33, the means as well as the end, 2 Thess. 2:13; Eph. 1:4, the duration of man's life, Job 14:5; Ps. 39

Chapter 63

7. WITH REFERENCE TO SIN IT IS PERMISSIVE. The decree of

God with reference to sin is usually called a permissive decree. It renders the future sinful act absolutely certain, but this does not mean that God will by His own act bring it to pass. God decreed not to hinder the si

Chapter 64

C. Objections to the Doctrine of the Decrees. Outside of Reformed

circles the doctrine of the decrees meets with very little favour. Pelagians and Socinians reject it as un-Scriptural and unreasonable, and Arminians either ignore it altogether, or represent the decree of God as based o

Chapter 65

1. IT IS DECLARED TO BE INCONSISTENT WITH THE MORAL

FREEDOM OF MAN. If God has decreed all the actions of man, then man must necessarily act as he acts and do what he does, and cannot be held responsible for his actions. But the Bible teaches not only that God has decreed

Chapter 66

2. IT IS SAID TO ROB MEN OF ALL MOTIVES FOR SEEKING

SALVATION. If all things happen as God has decreed, people will naturally feel that they need not give themselves any concern for the future, nor make any efforts to obtain salvation. If their destruction is predetermine

Chapter 67

3. IT MAKES GOD THE AUTHOR OF SIN. If God has decreed sin,

He must be regarded as the author of sin; and yet this cannot be in view of the fact that He is holy, that He himself forbids sin, and that Scripture stresses His moral purity, Ps. 92:15; Eccl. 7:29; Hab. 1:13; Jas. 1:13

Chapter 68

1. ELECTION. The Bible speaks of election in more than one sense:

(a) the election of Israel as a people for special service and also for special privileges, Deut. 4:37; 7:6–8; 10:15; Hos. 13:5; (b) the election of individuals to some office or special service, Deut. 18:5; 1 Sam. 10:24

Chapter 69

2. REPROBATION. The doctrine of election naturally implies that

some of the human race were not elected. If God purposed to save some, He also purposed not to save others. This is also in perfect agreement with the teachings of Scripture on this point, Matt. 11:25, 26; Rom. 9:13, 17,

Chapter 70

C. The Question of Supra- and Infralapsarianism. The doctrine of

predestination has not always been presented in exactly the same form. Supra- and Infralapsarians were pitted against each other, and even now exist alongside of each other in Reformed circles. The limitations of this Ma

Chapter 71

1. THE SUPRALAPSARIAN ORDER. The supralapsarian order may

be stated thus: a. God first decreed to glorify Himself in the salvation of some and in the damnation of other men, who at this stage existed in His mind only as possibilities. b. As a means to that end, He decreed to cr

Chapter 72

2. THE INFRALAPSARIAN ORDER. While the supralapsarian order

may be regarded as the more ideal of the two, the infralapsarian is more historical. a. God first decreed to create man. -- 69 of 277 -- b. Then He decreed to permit the fall of man. c. Next He decreed to elect a certa

Chapter 73

1. THE IDEA OF CREATION. The word "creation" is not always used

in the same sense, and as a result the definitions of creation vary. It may be defined as that act of God by which He produces the world and all that is in it, partly without the use of pre-existent materials, and partly

Chapter 74

2. THE TIME OF CREATION. In speaking of the time of creation the

Bible employs the ordinary language of daily life. It begins with the -- 71 of 277 -- very simple statement: "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth," Gen. 1:1. The "beginning" to which this statement r

Chapter 75

3. THE MANNER OF CREATION. In the strictest sense of the word

"to create" means to bring forth something out of nothing or without the use of pre-existent materials. The expression "to create or bring forth out of nothing" is not found in Scripture, but only in one of the apocrypha

Chapter 76

4. THE FINAL END OF CREATION. The question of the final end of

God in the work of creation has frequently been debated. There are especially two answers that have been given to this question: a. That the Happiness of Man is the Final End. Some of the early Greek and Roman philosophe

Chapter 77

5. SUGGESTED SUBSTITUTES FOR THE DOCTRINE OF

CREATION. Those who reject the doctrine of creation naturally resort to some other theory as to the origin of the world. Three theories deserve brief mention here: a. The Dualistic Theory. This theory is to the effect th

Chapter 78

1. THE EXISTENCE AND NATURE OF THE ANGELS. All religions

recognize the existence of a spiritual world. Many prominent philosophers even admitted the possibility of the existence of a world of angels and sought to prove this by pure reason. This is quite impossible, however, an

Chapter 79

2. THE ANGELIC ORDERS. Besides the general name "angels,"

there are several specific names which point to different classes of angels: a. Cherubim. The Bible repeatedly speaks of cherubim. They guard the entrance of paradise, Gen. 3:24, are represented as looking down on the me

Chapter 80

3. THE SERVICE OF THE ANGELS. The angels are represented in

Scripture as praising God day and night, Job 38:7; Isa. 6; Ps. 103:20; 148:2; Rev. 5:11. Since the entrance of sin into the world, they are "sent forth to do service for the sake of them that shall inherit salvation," He

Chapter 81

4. THE EVIL ANGELS. Besides the good there are also evil angels,

who delight in opposing God and destroying His work. They were created good, but did not retain their original position, 2 Pet. 2:4; Jude 6. The special sin of these angels is not revealed, but probably consisted in this

Chapter 82

1. THE NARRATIVE OF CREATION. The story of creation was

revealed to Moses or to one of the earlier patriarchs. If it was pre- Mosaic, it must have passed in tradition, oral or written, from one generation to another, and was finally penned by Moses under the guidance of the H

Chapter 83

Exodus 20:9–11 Israel is commanded to labour six days, because

Jehovah made heaven and earth in six days. This would seem to imply that the word "day" should be taken in the ordinary sense. (4) The last three days were certainly ordinary days, for they were determined by the earth's

Chapter 84

2. THE DOCTRINE OF CREATION AND THE THEORY OF

EVOLUTION. Some seem to think that the theory of evolution might take the place of the doctrine of creation in explaining the origin of the world. But this is clearly a mistake, for it offers no such explanation. Evoluti

Chapter 85

1. MISCONCEPTIONS OF THE NATURE OF PROVIDENCE. In

dealing with God's relation to the world we should be on our guard against two misconceptions: a. The Deistic Conception. According to Deism God's concern with the world is of a very general nature. He created the world,

Chapter 86

2. THE OBJECTS OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE. It is customary to

distinguish between general and special providence, the former denoting God's control of the universe as a whole, and the latter His -- 84 of 277 -- care for each part of it. Some even speak of a very special providenc

Chapter 87

1. DIVINE PRESERVATION. Preservation is that continuous work of

God by which He upholds all things. This does not mean, as some pantheists assume, that God continues to create the world from moment to moment, nor simply, as the deists think, that He withdraws His hand from the world

Chapter 88

2. DIVINE CONCURRENCE. Concurrence may be defined as that

work of God by which He co-operates with all His creatures and causes them to act precisely as they do. This means that there are real causes in the world, such as the forces of nature and the will of man, but that these

Chapter 89

3. DIVINE GOVERNMENT. The divine government is the continued

activity of God whereby He rules all things, so that they answer to the purpose of their existence. Both the Old and the New Testament teach us that God is King of the universe and rules all things according to His divin

Chapter 90

C. Extraordinary Providences or Miracles. Among the special

providences of God we may also reckon the miracles, in which God does not work through secondary causes or employs them in an unusual way. McPherson gives the following definition of a miracle: "A miracle is something do

Chapter 91

1. DICHOTOMY OR THE VIEW THAT MAN CONSISTS OF TWO

PARTS, BODY AND SOUL. The usual view of the constitution of man is that he consists of two, and only two, distinct parts, namely, body and soul or spirit. This is in harmony with the self-consciousness of man, which clea

Chapter 92

2. TRICHOTOMY, OR THE VIEW THAT MAN CONSISTS OF

THREE PARTS, BODY, SOUL, AND SPIRIT. Alongside of the usual view another one arose, which conceives of man as consisting of three parts, body, soul, and spirit. This conception of man did not result from the study of Scr

Chapter 93

1. PRE-EXISTENTIANISM. Some speculative theologians advocated

the theory that the souls of men existed in a previous state, and that certain occurrences in that former state account for the condition in which those souls are now found. It was thought to afford the most natural expl

Chapter 94

2. TRADUCIANISM. According to Traducianism the souls of men are

propagated along with the bodies by generation, and are therefore transmitted to the children by the parents. Scripture support for it is found in the fact that God ceased from the work of creation after He had made man,

Chapter 95

3. CREATIONISM. The creationist view is to the effect that each

individual soul is an immediate creation of God, which owes its origin to a direct creative act, of which the time cannot be precisely determined. The soul is supposed to be created pure, but to become sinful even before

Chapter 96

1. THE SCRIPTURAL TEACHING RESPECTING MAN AS THE

IMAGE-BEARER OF GOD. The Bible represents man as the crown of God's handiwork, whose special glory consists in this that he is created in the image of God and after His likeness, Gen. 1:26, 27. Attempts have been made to

Chapter 97

2. HISTORICAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE IMAGE OF GOD IN MAN.

There are especially three important historic conceptions of the image of God in man. a. The Roman Catholic View. Roman Catholics believe that God at creation endowed man with certain natural gifts, such as the -- 94 of

Chapter 98

1. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR THE COVENANT OF WORKS. In view

of the fact that some deny the existence of the covenant of works, it is highly desirable to examine its Scriptural basis. The Scripture proof for it is found in the following: a. All the elements of a covenant are indic

Chapter 99

2. THE ELEMENTS OF THE COVENANT OF WORKS. The

following elements must be distinguished. a. The Covenanting Parties. A covenant is always a compact between two parties. In the case of the covenant of works there was, on the one hand, the triune God, the sovereign Lor

Chapter 100

3. THE PRESENT VALIDITY OF THE COVENANT OF WORKS. The

Arminians of the seventeenth century maintained the position that the covenant of works was wholly abrogated by the fall of Adam, so that his descendants are entirely free from its obligations. In opposition to them the

Chapter 101

1. THE NATURE OF THE FIRST SIN. The first sin consisted in

man's eating of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This eating was sinful simply because God had forbidden it. We do not know what kind of tree this was. It was called "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil

Chapter 102

2. THE OCCASION OF THE FIRST SIN. The fall of man was

occasioned by the temptation of the serpent, who sowed in man's mind the seeds of distrust and unbelief. Though it was undoubtedly the intention of the tempter to cause Adam, the head of the covenant, to fall, yet he add

Chapter 103

3. THE RESULTS OF THE FIRST SIN. In consequence of the first

sin man lost the image of God in the restricted sense of the word, true knowledge of God, righteousness, and holiness; and, moreover, became totally depraved, that is, depraved in every part of his being and utterly inca

Chapter 104

1. SIN IS A SPECIFIC KIND OF EVIL. In the present day many

people show a tendency to substitute the word "evil" for "sin." But this is a poor substitute. While it is perfectly true that all sin is evil, it cannot be said with equal truth that all evil is sin. Sickness may be reg

Chapter 105

2. SIN HAS AN ABSOLUTE CHARACTER. In the ethical sphere the

contrast between good and evil is absolute. There is no neutral condition between the two. This is the clear teaching of Scripture. He who does not love God from the heart, is thereby already characterized as evil. The B

Chapter 106

3. SIN ALWAYS HAS RELATION TO GOD AND HIS WILL. Modern

theology insists on interpreting sin in a social way, that is, with reference to one's fellow-men. Sin is wrong done to one's fellow- beings. But this misses the point entirely, for such a wrong can be called sin only in

Chapter 107

4. SIN INCLUDES BOTH GUILT AND POLLUTION. Sin is first of all

guilt, that is, it is a transgression of the law, which makes men liable -- 103 of 277 -- to the punishment of a righteous God. Many indeed deny that sin includes guilt, but this denial goes contrary to the fact that t

Chapter 108

5. SIN HAS ITS SEAT IN THE HEART. Sin does not reside in any

one faculty of the soul, but in the heart, which in the psychology of Scripture is the central organ of the soul, out of which are the issues of life, Prov. 4:23. And from this center its influence and operations spread

Chapter 109

6. SIN DOES NOT CONSIST IN OUTWARD ACTS ONLY. Over

against Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians of every description the fact should be emphasized that sin consists not only in outward acts, but also in sinful habits and in a sinful condition of the heart. These three are relate

Chapter 110

1. THE PELAGIAN VIEW OF SIN. The Pelagian does not believe in

original sin, and therefore does not share the conviction that every man is born as a sinner. Adam was created, and every one of his descendants is born, in a state of moral neutrality, neither positively good nor positi

Chapter 111

2. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC VIEW OF SIN. According to the Roman

Catholics original sin is primarily a negative condition, consisting in the absence of that original righteousness with which man was super-naturally endowed. It is a state of aversion to God, and therefore a state of si

Chapter 112

3. THE EVOLUTIONARY VIEW OF SIN. In modern liberal theology

the evolutionary view of sin is very popular, though it is not always presented in exactly the same way. It was developed particularly in the works of Tennant. According to him there are many impulses and qualities which

Chapter 113

1. THE REALISTIC THEORY. The earliest of the three is the realistic

theory, which is to the effect that God originally created one general human nature, which in course of time is divided into as many parts as there are human individuals. Adam possessed the whole of this general human na

Chapter 114

2. THE THEORY OF IMMEDIATE IMPUTATION (COVENANT OF

WORKS). According to this view Adam stood in a twofold relation to his descendants. He was the natural head of the human race, the progenitor of all the children of men. To this natural relationship God added the covenan

Chapter 115

3. THE THEORY OF MEDIATE IMPUTATION. The last theory

proceeds on the assumption that the guilt of Adam's sin is not -- 107 of 277 -- directly imputed to his descendants, and advocates the following idea: Adam's descendants derive their innate corruption from him by the p

Chapter 116

1. ORIGINAL SIN. In virtue of their connection with Adam all men

are, after the fall, born in a sinful state and condition. This state is called original sin and is the inward root of all the actual sins that defile the life of man. It contains two elements: a. Original Guilt. This me

Chapter 117

2. ACTUAL SIN.

a. The Difference Between Actual and Original Sin. The term "actual sin" denotes not only sins consisting in outward acts, but also all -- 109 of 277 -- those conscious thoughts and volitions which proceed from origina

Chapter 118

C. The Universality of Sin. Scripture and experience both teach us

that sin is universal. Even Pelagians do not deny this, though they ascribe it to external conditions, such as a bad environment, evil examples, and a wrong kind of education. According to Scripture, however, the explana

Chapter 119

1. The universality of sin is asserted in several direct statements of

Scripture. The following are some of the most important passages that come into consideration here: 1 Kings 8:46; Ps. 143:2; Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:1–12, 19, 20, 23; Gal. 3:22; Jas. 3:2; 1 John 1:8, 10.

Chapter 120

3. Death as the penalty of sin is visited even upon those who have

never exercised a personal and conscious choice, Rom. 5:12–14. This passage implies that sin exists, in the case of infants, prior to moral consciousness. Since infants die, and therefore the effect of sin is present in

Chapter 121

4. According to Scripture all men are under condemnation and

therefore need the redemption which is in Christ Jesus. Children are never made an exception to this rule. This follows from the passages quoted under (1), and also from John 3:3, 5; Eph. 2:3; 1 John 5:12. They all need

Chapter 122

2. There are passages which point to the fact that the plan of God for

the salvation of sinners was of the nature of a covenant. Christ speaks of promises made to Him before His advent, and repeatedly refers to a commission which He received from the Father, John 5:30, 43; 6:38–40; 17:4–12.

Chapter 123

3. The elements of a covenant are clearly indicated, such as

contracting parties, a promise, and a condition. In Ps. 2:7–9 the parties are mentioned and a promise is indicated (comp. Acts 13:33; Heb. 1:5; 5:5). In another Messianic passage, Ps. 40:7–9 (comp. Heb. 10:5–7) the Messi

Chapter 124

4. There are two passages in the Old Testament, which connect the

idea of the covenant immediately with the Messiah, namely, Ps. 89:3 and Isa. 42:6, which refers to the Servant of the Lord. The connection clearly shows that this servant is not merely Israel. Moreover, there are also pa

Chapter 125

1. THE OFFICIAL POSITION OF CHRIST IN THE COVENANT.

Christ is both surety and head of the covenant of redemption. He is called "surety" in Heb. 7:22. A surety is a person who takes upon himself the legal obligations of another. Christ stepped into the place of the sinner

Chapter 126

2. THE COVENANT WAS FOR CHRIST A COVENANT OF WORKS.

The covenant of redemption is indeed the eternal basis of the -- 114 of 277 -- covenant of grace, and for sinners also its original pattern. But for Christ it is a covenant of works rather than a covenant of grace. For

Chapter 127

3. CHRIST'S WORK IN THE COVENANT IS LIMITED BY

ELECTION. The covenant of redemption has sometimes been confused with the decree of election, but the two are not identical. The decree of election determines the number of those who are destined to be heirs of eternal g

Chapter 128

4. THE COVENANT OF REDEMPTION AND THE USE OF THE

SACRAMENTS BY CHRIST. Christ used the sacraments of both the Old and the New Testament. Clearly they could not mean for Him what they mean for believers; they could not be symbols nor seals of saving grace; neither could

Chapter 129

1. REQUIREMENTS. The Father required of the Son as the surety

and head of His people: a. That He should assume human nature by being born of a woman, and should assume this nature with its present infirmities, though without sin, Gal. 4:4, 5; Heb. 2:10, 11, 14, 15; 4:15. b. That He

Chapter 130

2. PROMISES. The main promises of the Father, which correspond

to the demands of the Son, were: a. That He would prepare for Him a body uncontaminated by sin, Heb. 10:5, and would anoint Him by giving Him the Spirit without measure, thus qualifying Him for His Messianic offices, Isa

Chapter 131

1. THE COVENANT AS AN END IN ITSELF, A COVENANT OF

MUTUAL FRIENDSHIP OR COMMUNION OF LIFE. The covenant of grace may be contemplated as an end which God had in view in the covenant of redemption, as an ultimate spiritual reality which He brings to realization in the cour

Chapter 132

2. THE COVENANT AS A MEANS TO AN END, A PURELY LEGAL

RELATIONSHIP INDICATIVE OF THE SPIRITUAL END THAT SHOULD BE REALIZED. It is quite evident that the Bible also speaks of the covenant in a broader sense, as including many who do not share in the life of the covenant, and

Chapter 133

1. THE PROMISES OF THE COVENANT. The main promise of the

covenant, which includes all other promises, is contained in the oft- repeated words, "I will be a God unto thee and to thy seed after thee." This promise in its full or in an abbreviated form is found in several Old and

Chapter 134

2. THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE COVENANT. It is sometimes said

that the covenant of grace, in distinction from the covenant of works, contains no requirements and imposes no obligations on man. However, this is hardly correct in the absolute sense of the word. It is perfectly true t

Chapter 135

1. IT IS A GRACIOUS COVENANT. This covenant may he called

gracious, (a) because in it God allows a surety to meet our obligations; (b) because He Himself offers the surety in the person of His Son, who meets the demands of justice; and (c) because by His grace, revealed in the

Chapter 136

2. IT IS A TRINITARIAN COVENANT. The triune God is operative

in the covenant of grace. It has its origin in the elective love and grace of the Father, finds its legal foundation in the suretyship of the Son, and is fully realized in the lives of sinners only by the effective appli

Chapter 137

3. IT IS AN ETERNAL AND THEREFORE UNBREAKABLE

COVENANT. If we distinguish between the covenant of redemption and the covenant of grace, then we cannot say that the latter was established in eternity. We can maintain, however, that it will endure eternally, Gen. 17:1

Chapter 138

4. IT IS A PARTICULAR AND NOT A UNIVERSAL COVENANT.

This means that the essence of the covenant, the relation of friendship with God and of life in communion with Him, will be realized only in the elect, and that even the external covenant relationship does not extend to

Chapter 139

5. THE COVENANT IS ESSENTIALLY THE SAME IN ALL

DISPENSATIONS, THOUGH THE FORM OF ITS ADMINISTRATION CHANGES. The essential covenant promise is the same throughout, Gen. 17:7; Ex. 19:5; 20:1; Deut. 29:13; 2 Sam. 7:14; Jer. 31:33; Heb. 8:10. The gospel, which repr

Chapter 140

6. THE COVENANT IS BOTH CONDITIONAL AND

UNCONDITIONAL. The covenant is clearly conditional on the suretyship of Jesus Christ. Man's conscious entrance into the covenant as a communion of life is conditioned by faith and his continued enjoyment of its blessings

Chapter 141

7. THE COVENANT CAN BE CALLED A TESTAMENT. The

covenant is, of course, two-sided, that is, it is an agreement between two parties. An absolutely one-sided covenant is a contradiction in terms. Yet there is a sense in which the covenant of grace can be called one-side

Chapter 142

D. The Relation of Christ to the Covenant of Grace. Christ is

represented in Scripture as the Mediator of the Covenant. A mediator in the general sense of the word is simply a person who mediates between two opposite parties in an attempt to bring them together. The Scriptural idea

Chapter 143

1. ADULTS IN THE COVENANT. Adults can only enter the covenant

as a legal agreement by faith and confession. And when they so enter it, they at the same time gain entrance into the covenant as a communion of life. The only case in which this does not hold is when the faith is preten

Chapter 144

2. CHILDREN OF BELIEVERS IN THE COVENANT. Children of

believers enter the covenant as a legal relationship by birth, but this does not necessarily mean that they are also at once in the covenant as a communion of life. It does not even mean that the covenant relation will e

Chapter 145

3. UNREGENERATE IN THE COVENANT. From the preceding it

follows that even unregenerate and unconverted persons may be in the covenant as a legal agreement. They may claim the covenant -- 125 of 277 -- promises, which God gave when He established the covenant with believers

Chapter 146

1. THE FIRST REVELATION OF THE COVENANT IN GEN. 3:15.

The first revelation of the covenant is found in what is usually called the protevangel or the maternal promise. This does not yet refer to the formal establishment of the covenant. The revelation of such a formal establ

Chapter 147

2. THE COVENANT OF NATURE WITH NOAH. The covenant with

Noah is of a very general nature. God promises that He will not again destroy all flesh by the waters of a flood, and that the regular succession of seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night,

Chapter 148

3. THE COVENANT WITH ABRAHAM. The covenant was formally

established with Abraham. This transaction with Abraham marked the beginning of the particularistic Old Testament administration of the covenant. It is now limited to a single family, to Abraham and his descendants. In t

Chapter 149

4. THE SINAITIC COVENANT. The covenant at Sinai was essentially

the same as that established with Abraham, though the form differed somewhat. It was now established with the nation of Israel, and thus became a truly national covenant. In a large measure Church and State became one. T

Chapter 150

5. THE NEW TESTAMENT DISPENSATION OF THE COVENANT.

The covenant of grace, as it is revealed in the New Testament, is essentially one with the covenant that stands out on the pages of the Old Testament. This is abundantly evident from Romans 4 and Galatians 3. It is true

Chapter 151

C. The Name Son of Man. The name "Son of Man" is found in Ps.

8:4; Dan. 7:13; Enoch 46 and 62; 2 Esdras 13, and is, moreover, a frequent designation of the prophet Ezekiel. It is now quite generally admitted that the name, as applied to Christ, is derived from Dan. 7:13, though in

Chapter 152

D. The Name Son of God. The name "Son of God" is variously used in

the Old Testament. It is applied to Israel as a nation, Ex. 4:22; Hos. 11:1, to the promised king of the house of David, 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 89:27, to angels, Job 1:6; 38:7; Ps. 29:1, and to pious people in general, Gen. 6:

Chapter 153

2. IN THE OFFICIAL OR MESSIANIC SENSE, as a description of

the office rather than of the nature of Christ. The Messiah is frequently called the Son of God as God's heir and representative. The devils evidently so used the name, Matt. 8:29. The name seems to have this meaning als

Chapter 154

3. IN THE TRINITARIAN SENSE, in which it serves to designate

Christ as the second person in the Trinity. This is the most profound sense in which the name is used. In all probability Jesus Himself invariably employs the name in that particular sense. It is clearly so used in Matt.

Chapter 155

3. Finally, there are passages in which it is expressive of the exalted

character of Christ, of His supreme spiritual authority, and is practically equivalent to the name of God, Mark 12:36, 37; Luke 2:11; 3:4; Acts 2:36; 1 Cor. 12:3; Phil. 2:11. It is particularly after the resurrection tha

Chapter 156

1. THE DIVINE NATURE OF CHRIST. There is today a widespread

denial of the divinity or, more specically, the deity of Christ. And yet this is clearly taught in Scripture. Even the Old Testament affords proof for it in its predictions of the coming Messiah, Isa. 9:6; Jer. -- 135 o

Chapter 157

2. THE HUMAN NATURE OF CHRIST. In the early Christian

centuries some called the real humanity of Christ in question, but at the present time no one seriously questions this. For a long time there was a one-sided emphasis on the deity of Christ, and scant justice was done to

Chapter 158

3. THE NECESSITY OF THE TWO NATURES IN CHRIST. In the

present day many consider Jesus as a mere man, and do not recognize the necessity of the two natures in Christ. But if Christ is not both man and God, He cannot be our Mediator. He had to be one of the human race, in ord

Chapter 159

1. STATEMENT OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TWO NATURES IN

ONE PERSON. There is but one person in the Mediator, and that person is the unchangeable Son of God. In the incarnation He did not change into a human person, nor did He adopt a human person; He simply assumed a human na

Chapter 160

2. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR THE UNITY OF THE PERSON IN

CHRIST. If there were a dual personality in Christ, we would naturally expect to find some traces of it in the Bible; but there is not a single trace of it. It is always the same person who speaks, whether the consciousn

Chapter 161

3. THE EFFECTS OF THE UNION OF THE TWO NATURES IN

ONE PERSON. Since the divine nature is immutable, it naturally did not undergo any essential change in the incarnation. There is, -- 138 of 277 -- however, a threefold communication, which results from the union of the

Chapter 162

1. DENIAL OF THE REALITY OF THE DIVINE NATURE. In the

early Christian centuries the reality of the divine nature of Christ was denied by the Ebionites and the Alogi. In more recent times this denial was shared by the Socinians of the days of the Reformation, -- 139 of 277

Chapter 163

2. DENIAL OF THE REALITY OF CHRIST'S HUMAN NATURE.

Second century Gnosticism denied the real humanity of Christ. Some ascribed to Christ merely a refined or heavenly body, while others distinguished between a human Jesus and a divine Christ who was connected with the for

Chapter 164

3. DENIAL OF THE INTEGRITY OF THE TWO NATURES. The

Arians regarded Christ as a created being, neither God nor man, a sort of demi-god, while Appolinaris, who conceived of man as consisting of three parts, body, soul, and spirit, maintained that the human nature of Christ

Chapter 165

5. DENIAL OF THE TWO NATURES OF CHRIST. The Eutichians

represented the opposite extreme in speaking of the two natures of Christ as fused into some third nature neither human nor divine. Sometimes it was represented as if the human nature were absorbed in the divine. The Lut

Chapter 166

1. THE INCARNATION AND BIRTH OF CHRIST. In the incarnation

the Son of God, sometimes called the Word (John 1), became flesh. This does not mean that He ceased to be what He was and changed into a man. In His essential nature the Son of God is exactly the same before and after th

Chapter 167

2. THE SUFFERINGS OF CHRIST. We are often inclined to think of

the sufferings of Christ as limited to His final agonies. Yet His whole life was a life of suffering. It was the servant-life of the Lord of Hosts, the life of the sinless One in a sin-cursed world. The way of obedience

Chapter 168

3. THE DEATH OF CHRIST. When we speak of the death of Christ

here, we have in mind His physical death. Christ did not die as the result of an accident, nor by the hand of an assassin, but under a judicial sentence. It was of importance that this should be so, because He had to be

Chapter 169

4. THE BURIAL OF CHRIST. It might seem that the death of Christ

was the last stage of His humiliation, especially in view of the last words on the cross: "It is finished." But these words in all probability refer to His active sufferings. It is quite clear that His burial also formed

Chapter 170

5. THE DESCENT OF CHRIST INTO HADES. After speaking of the

sufferings and death of the Saviour, the Apostolic Confession adds: "He descended into hell (hades)." These words are variously interpreted. Roman Catholics interpret them to mean that Christ after His death went down in

Chapter 171

1. THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST. The resurrection was the

great turning-point in the states of Christ. a. The Nature of the Resurrection. The resurrection of Christ did not consist in the mere fact that He came to life again and that body and soul were re-united. If this were a

Chapter 172

2. THE ASCENSION OF CHRIST. The ascension of Christ does not

stand out as boldly on the pages of the Bible as the resurrection. The latter was the real turning-point in the life of Jesus, and the ascension may be called its necessary complement and completion. This does not mean t

Chapter 173

3. CHRIST'S SESSION AT THE RIGHT HAND OF GOD. After His

ascension Christ took His place on the throne at the right hand of the Father. He predicted that He would be seated at the right hand of power, Matt. 26:64. Peter makes mention of it in his sermons, Acts 2:33–36; 5:31, a

Chapter 174

4. THE PHYSICAL RETURN OF CHRIST. The highest stage in the

exaltation of Christ is not reached until He returns in the capacity of Judge. He Himself refers to this as a special prerogative, John 5:22, 27, and so do the apostles, Acts 10:42; 17:31. Several other passages also ref

Chapter 175

1. THE SCRIPTURAL IDEA OF A PROPHET. The classical passages,

Ex. 7:1 and Deut. 18:18, indicate that there are two sides to the prophetic office, the one receptive and the other productive. The prophet receives divine revelations in dreams, visions, or verbal communications; and pa

Chapter 176

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH CHRIST FUNCTIONS AS PROPHET. The

prophetic work of Christ should not be limited to the time of His earthly life or His public ministry. He functioned as prophet during the old dispensation as the Angel of the Lord, and also in and through the prophets,

Chapter 177

3. MODERN EMPHASIS ON THE PROPHETIC WORK OF CHRIST.

In so far as there is any recognition of the official work of Christ in modern liberal theology, the emphasis is altogether on the prophetic work of Christ. Christ stands out before the modern mind primarily as the great

Chapter 178

1. THE SCRIPTURAL IDEA OF A PRIEST. The Bible makes a broad

but important distinction between a prophet and a priest. The prophet was appointed to be God's representative with the people, and was primarily a religious teacher. The priest, on the other hand, was man's representati

Chapter 179

2. THE SACRIFICIAL WORK OF CHRIST.

a. The Nature of Christ's Sacrificial Work. The work of Christ was first of all to bring a sacrifice for sin. The peculiarity in His case was that the priest was also the sacrifice. In other words, the sacrifice of Chris

Chapter 180

3. THE INTERCESSORY WORK OF CHRIST. The priestly work of

Christ is not limited to the bringing of a sacrifice; He is also the intercessor of His people. He is called our "parakletos" by implication in John 14:16 and explicitly in 1 John 2:2. The term means one who is called in

Chapter 181

C. The Kingly Office. Christ as the Son of God naturally shares in the

dominion of God over all His creatures. This kingship is rooted in His divine nature and is His by original right. In this connection, however, we are concerned with a kingship with which He as Mediator was invested. We

Chapter 182

1. THE SPIRITUAL KINGSHIP OF CHRIST. The Bible speaks of this

kingship in many places, Ps. 2:6; 45:6, 7 (cf. Heb. 1:8, 9); 132:11; Isa. 9:6, 7; Micah 5:2; Zech. 6:13; Luke 1:33; 19:27, 38; John 18:36, 37; Acts 2:30–36. a. The Nature of This Kingship. The spiritual kingship of Chris

Chapter 183

2. THE KINGSHIP OF CHRIST OVER THE UNIVERSE. Before His

ascension Christ said to His disciples: "All authority hath been given unto me in heaven and on earth," Matt. 28:18. The same truth is also taught in Eph. 1:20–22; 1 Cor. 15:27. a. The Nature of This Kingship. This kings

Chapter 184

1. THE MOVING CAUSE OF THE ATONEMENT. It is sometimes

represented as if the moving cause of the atonement lay in the sympathetic love of Christ for sinners. In this representation the -- 160 of 277 -- impression is often given that God is an angry God bent on the sinner's

Chapter 185

2. THE NECESSITY OF THE ATONEMENT. Some, such as Duns

Scotus, Socinus, and many modern liberal theologians, deny the necessity of the atonement. They do not believe that anything in God required satisfaction for sin before He could pardon the sinner. It is quite evident, ho

Chapter 186

1. IT SERVED TO RENDER SATISFACTION TO GOD. The

atonement has frequently been represented, and is now often regarded, as something that was primarily intended to influence the sinner, to awaken repentance, and thus to bring him back to God. But this is an entirely err

Chapter 187

20. The reconciliation of the sinner to God may be regarded as the

secondary purpose of the atonement. The reconciled God justifies the sinner and so operates in his heart by the Holy Spirit that the latter also lays aside his wicked alienation from God, and thus enters into the fruits

Chapter 188

3. IT WAS A VICARIOUS ATONEMENT. There is a difference

between personal and vicarious atonement. When man fell away from God, he became a transgressor and as such owed God satisfaction. But man could atone for his sin only by suffering the penalty of sin eternally; and this

Chapter 189

3. IT INCLUDED CHRIST'S ACTIVE AND PASSIVE OBEDIENCE. It

is customary to distinguish between the active and passive obedience of Christ. His active obedience consists in all that He did to observe the law in behalf of sinners, as a condition for obtaining eternal life; and His

Chapter 190

C. The Extent of the Atonement. It is generally admitted that the

satisfaction rendered by Christ was in itself sufficient for the salvation of all men, though they do not attain unto salvation. There is a difference of opinion, however, as to the question, whether Christ suffered and

Chapter 191

1. THE LIMITED EXTENT OF THE ATONEMENT. Roman

Catholics, Lutherans, and Arminians of every description, maintain that the atonement wrought by Christ is universal. This does not mean that in their estimation all men will be saved, but simply that it was the intentio

Chapter 192

2. OBJECTIONS TO A LIMITED ATONEMENT. Several objections

have been raised to the doctrine of a particular atonement, of which the following are the most important. a. There are passages which teach that Christ died for the world, John 1:29; 3:16; 1 John 2:2; 4:14. The objector

Chapter 193

D. The Atonement in Present-Day Theology. There is a wide-spread

denial of the atonement in the proper sense of the word in present- day theology. Modern liberal theology really has no place for a doctrine of the atonement in any sense of the word. It regards sin simply as a weakness

Chapter 194

1. DESCRIPTION OF COMMON GRACE. The distinction between

common and special grace does not apply to grace as an attribute of God, but only to the gracious operations of God and to the effects of these operations in nature and in the life of man. When we speak of common grace w

Chapter 195

2. COMMON GRACE AND THE ATONING WORK OF CHRIST. By

His atoning work Christ merited the blessings of special grace. Did He also by His sacrificial death merit the more common blessings of divine grace which are bestowed on all men, and therefore also on the impenitent and

Chapter 196

3. THE MEANS BY WHICH COMMON GRACE OPERATES. There

are several means by which common grace operates, such as: a. The Light of God's Revelation. This is fundamental, for without it all other means would be impossible and ineffective. We have in mind primarily the light of

Chapter 197

4. THE EFFECTS OF COMMON GRACE.

a. Execution of the Sentence Stayed. It is due to common grace that God did not at once fully execute the sentence of death upon the sinner, and does not do so now, but maintains and prolongs the natural life of man and

Chapter 198

5. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR COMMON GRACE. Some passages of

Scripture clearly intimate that there is a striving of the Spirit of God with men which does not lead to repentance and finally ceases, Gen. 6:3; Isa. 63:10; Acts 7:51; 1 Sam. 16:14; Heb. 6:4–6; Ps. 81:12; Rom. 1:24, 26,

Chapter 199

1. EXTERNAL CALLING. The Bible speaks of external calling in the

great commission, Matt. 28:19; Mark 16:15; in passages showing that some who were called did not come, Matt. 22:2–14; Luke 14:16–24; in references to a rejection of the gospel, John 3:36; Acts 13:46; 2 Thess. 1:8; and, f

Chapter 200

2. INTERNAL OR EFFECTUAL CALLING. The calling which comes

from God to the sinner is really one, though we speak of an external and an internal calling. Through the operation of the Holy Spirit the former issues in and is made effective in the latter. The fact that they are one

Chapter 201

1. THE MEANING OF THE TERM "REGENERATION." The word

"regeneration" is not always used in the same sense. Calvin employed it in a very comprehensive sense, to denote the whole process of man's renewal, including even conversion and sanctification. In our confessional stand

Chapter 202

2. THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF REGENERATION. The following

particulars serve to indicate the essential nature of regeneration: a. It is a Fundamental Change. Regeneration consists in the implanting of the principle of the new spiritual life in man, in a radical change of the gov

Chapter 203

3. THE RELATIVE ORDER OF CALLING AND REGENERATION.

The order in which calling and regeneration stand to each other may best be indicated as follows: The external call in the preaching of the Word, except in the case of children, precedes or coincides with the operation o

Chapter 204

4. THE NECESSITY OF REGENERATION. Scripture does not leave

us in doubt about the necessity of regeneration, but asserts this in the clearest terms, John 3:3, 5, 7; 1 Cor. 2:14; Gal. 6:15. Cf. also Jer. 13:23; Rom. 3:11; Eph. 2:3. This necessity also follows from the sinful condi

Chapter 205

5. THE USE OF THE WORD OF GOD AS AN INSTRUMENT IN

REGENERATION. The question is often raised, whether the Word, that is, the word of preaching, is instrumental in the implanting of the new life, in regeneration in the most restricted sense of the word. Since regeneratio

Chapter 206

6. REGENERATION EXCLUSIVELY A WORK OF GOD. God is the

author of regeneration. It is represented in Scripture as the work of the Holy Spirit directly and exclusively, Ezek. 11:19; John 1:13; Acts 16:14; Rom. 9:16; Phil. 2:13. This means that in regeneration God only works, a

Chapter 207

7. BAPTISMAL REGENERATION. According to the Church of Rome

regeneration includes not only spiritual renewal, but also justification or the forgiveness of sins, and is effected by means of baptism. An influential section of the Anglican Church is in agreement with the Church of R

Chapter 208

1. IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. The Old Testament employs two

words, each one of which indicates a specific element of conversion. The one (nicham) means to repent with a repentance which is often accompanied with a change of plan and of action. And the other (shubh) signifies to t

Chapter 209

2. IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. The New Testament contains three

important words for conversion. The word that occurs most frequently (metanoeo, metanoia) denotes primarily a change of mind. However, this change is not to be conceived exclusively as an intellectual, but also as a mora

Chapter 210

2. TEMPORARY CONVERSION. It also speaks of conversions that

represent no change of heart, and are of only passing significance, Matt. 13:20, 21; Acts 8:9 ff.; 1 Tim. 1:19, 20; 2 Tim. 2:18; 4:10; Heb. 6:4, 5. These may for a time have all the appearance of true conversion.

Chapter 211

3. TRUE CONVERSION. The Bible contains several examples of true

conversion, such as Naaman, 2 Kings 5:15; Manasseh, 2 Chron. 33:12, 13; Zaccheus, Luke 19:8, 9; the man born blind, John 9:38; the Samaritan woman, John 4:29, 39; the eunuch, Acts 8:30 ff.; -- 183 of 277 -- Cornelius,

Chapter 212

4. REPEATED CONVERSION. Regeneration as the implanting of the

new life cannot possibly be repeated. Neither can conversion in the strict sense of the word, for this is but the initial outward manifestation, in the conscious life of man, of the change wrought in regeneration. At the

Chapter 213

C. The Elements of Conversion. From the preceding it already

appears that conversion comprises two elements, namely, repentance and faith. Of these the former has reference to the past, and the latter to the future, the former is directly connected with sanctification, and the lat

Chapter 214

1. THE ELEMENTS OF REPENTANCE. Repentance includes three

elements: (a) An intellectual element, namely, a change of view in which the past life is recognized as a life of sin, involving personal guilt, defilement, and helplessness. This is the knowledge of sin of which the Bib

Chapter 215

2. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CONCEPTION OF REPENTANCE. The

Church of Rome has externalized the idea of repentance entirely in its sacrament of penance. This contains especially three elements (a) Contrition, that is, real sorrow for sin, not for inborn sin, but for personal tran

Chapter 216

3. THE SCRIPTURAL VIEW OF REPENTANCE. The Scriptural view

of repentance is quite different from the external view of the Roman Catholics. It views repentance wholly as an inward act, an act of contrition or sorrow on account of sin. It does not confound this with the change of

Chapter 217

2. Conversion does not, like regeneration, take place in the

subconscious, but in the conscious life of man. It may be said to begin in regeneration, and therefore in the region below consciousness, but as a completed act it certainly falls within the range of the conscious life.

Chapter 218

4. If we take the word "conversion" in its specific sense, it denotes a

momentary change and not a process like sanctification. It is a change that takes place but once and cannot be repeated. In a slightly different sense, however, it is possible to speak of repeated conversion. E. The Auth

Chapter 219

1. HISTORICAL FAITH. Historical faith is a purely intellectual

acceptance of the truth of Scripture without any real moral or spiritual response. The name does not imply that it embraces only historical facts and events to the exclusion of moral and spiritual truths; nor that it is

Chapter 220

2. FAITH OF MIRACLES. Faith of miracles consists in a person's

conviction that a miracle will be wrought by him or in his behalf. If he is persuaded that he himself can or will work a miracle, he has this faith in the active sense, Matt. 17:20; Mark 16:17, 18, while he has it in the

Chapter 221

3. TEMPORAL FAITH. Temporal faith is a persuasion of the truths

of religion which is accompanied with some promptings of conscience and a stirring of the affections, but is not rooted in a regenerated heart. The name is derived from Matt. 13:20, 21. It is called temporary faith, beca

Chapter 222

4. TRUE SAVING FAITH. True saving faith is a faith that has its seat

in the heart and is rooted in the regenerate life. The seed of the faith is implanted by God in the heart in regeneration, and it is only after God has implanted this seed in the heart that man can actively exercise fait

Chapter 223

1. AN INTELLECTUAL ELEMENT (KNOWLEDGE). While saving

faith does not consist in a mere intellectual acceptance of the truth, it does include a positive recognition of the truth revealed in the Word of God. This knowledge of faith should not be regarded as a complete compreh

Chapter 224

2. AN EMOTIONAL ELEMENT (ASSENT). The Heidelberg

Catechism does not mention this element of faith separately. This is due to the fact that what is called "assent" is really included in the knowledge of saving faith. It is characteristic of the knowledge included in sav

Chapter 225

3. A VOLITIONAL ELEMENT (TRUST). This is the crowning

element of faith. Faith is not merely a matter of the intellect, nor of the intellect and the emotions combined; it is also a matter of the will which determines the direction of life, an act of the soul by which it goes

Chapter 226

1. SAVING FAITH IN GENERAL. The object of saving faith in the

more general sense of the word is the whole of divine revelation as contained in the Word of God. Everything that is explicitly taught in Scripture or can be deduced from it by good and necessary inference, belongs to th

Chapter 227

2. SAVING FAITH IN THE MORE SPECIFIC SENSE. While it is

necessary to accept the Bible as the Word of God, this is not the specific act of faith which justifies and therefore saves directly. It must, and as a matter of fact does, lead on to a more special faith. There are cert

Chapter 228

1. THE NEGATIVE ELEMENT. The negative element of justification

is the forgiveness of sins on the basis of the imputed righteousness of Jesus Christ. The pardon granted in justification applies to all sins, past, present, and future, and therefore includes the removal of all guilt an

Chapter 229

2. THE POSITIVE ELEMENT. There is also a positive element in

justification, in which two parts may be distinguished: a. The Adoption of Children. In justification God adopts the believer as His child, that is, places him in the position of a child and gives him all the rights of a

Chapter 230

1. ACTIVE JUSTIFICATION. Active justification takes place in the

tribunal of God, Rom. 3:20; Gal. 3:11. In the sphere of heaven God, appearing as a righteous Judge, declares the sinner righteous, not in himself, but in view of the fact that the righteousness of Christ is imputed to hi

Chapter 231

2. PASSIVE JUSTIFICATION. Passive justification takes place in the

heart or conscience of the sinner. A justification that is not brought home to the sinner would not answer the purpose. Pardon means nothing to a prisoner unless the glad tidings are communicated to him and the doors of

Chapter 232

1. JUSTIFICATION FROM ETERNITY. Many Antinomians confuse

the divine decree respecting the redemption of men with the application of the work of redemption by the Holy Spirit. They believe that the grace of God to sinners in the eternal decree is all that is necessary for the r

Chapter 233

2. JUSTIFICATION IN THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST. Some

Antinomians do not go to the extent of maintaining that everything was accomplished in the decree, and that even the work of Christ was, strictly speaking, unnecessary; but they do hold that, after Christ has accomplishe

Chapter 234

3. JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH. When the Bible speaks of the

justification of the sinner, it usually refers to the subjective application and appropriation of the justifying grace of God. It speaks of this as justification by faith, because it is by faith that we appropriate the m

Chapter 235

1. It is said that justification is a legal transaction, and therefore

excludes grace, while Scripture teaches that the sinner is saved by grace. But justification, with all that it includes, is a gracious work of God. The gift of Christ, the imputation of His righteousness, and God's deali

Chapter 236

2. Some speak of justification as a procedure unworthy of God,

because it declares sinners righteous, while as a matter of fact they are not righteous. The objection does not hold, however, because it -- 200 of 277 -- does not declare that they are righteous in themselves, but tha

Chapter 237

3. It is often said that this doctrine leads to licentiousness, since they

who are justified are apt to think that their personal piety is a matter of little importance. However, in justification the sure foundation is laid for that vital and spiritual union with Christ, which is the surest gua

Chapter 238

1. God and not man is the author of sanctification. This does not

mean, however, that man is entirely passive in the process. He can -- 203 of 277 -- and should co-operate with God in the work of sanctification by a diligent use of the means which God has placed at his disposal, 2 Co

Chapter 239

1. SANCTIFICATION IS A SUPERNATURAL WORK OF GOD. Some

have the mistaken notion that sanctification consists merely in the drawing out of the new life which is implanted in regeneration by presenting motives to the will and thus persuading man to increase in holiness. In rea

Chapter 240

2. IT CONSISTS OF TWO PARTS:

-- 204 of 277 -- a. The Mortification of the Old Man. The negative side of sanctification consists in this that the pollution and corruption of human nature which results from sin is gradually removed. The old man, that

Chapter 241

3. IT AFFECTS THE WHOLE MAN. Since sanctification takes place

in the heart, it naturally affects the whole organism. The change in the inner man is bound to carry with it a change in the outer life, Rom. 6:12; 1 Cor. 6:15, 20; 2 Cor. 5:17; 1 Thess 5:23. It is completed especially i

Chapter 242

4. IT IS A WORK IN WHICH BELIEVERS CO-OPERATE. That man

must co-operate in the work of sanctification follows from the repeated warnings against evils and temptations, Rom. 12:9, 16, 17; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Gal. 5:16–23; and from the constant exhortations to holy living, Micah 6:

Chapter 243

1. THE NATURE OF GOOD WORKS. When we speak of good works,

we do not mean perfect works, but works which, at least in principle, answer to the divine requirements and which are good in the spiritual sense of the word. Such good works spring from the principle of love to God and

Chapter 244

2. THE MERITORIOUS CHARACTER OF GOOD WORKS. The good

works of believers are not meritorious in the strict sense of the word, that is, they do not have the inherent value which naturally carries with it a just claim to a reward. If God does reward their good works, it is no

Chapter 245

3. THE NECESSITY OF GOOD WORKS. There can be no doubt

about the necessity of good works, but this necessity should be properly understood. They are not necessary to merit salvation, nor even as a necessary condition of salvation. Infants enter heaven without having done any

Chapter 246

C. Objections to the Doctrine of Perseverance. It is often said that the

doctrine of perseverance leads to false security and to indolence, license, and immorality. But this is not true. While the Bible tells us that we are kept by the grace of God, it does not encourage the idea that God kee

Chapter 247

1. Most frequently it denotes a circle of believers in some definite

locality, a local church, irrespective of the question, whether it is assembled for worship or not. Some passages regard it as assembled, Acts 5:11; 11:26; 1 Cor. 11:18; 14:19, 28, 35, and others do not, Rom. 16:4; 1 Cor

Chapter 248

3. In its most comprehensive sense the word serves as a designation

of the whole body of believers, whether in heaven or on earth, who -- 212 of 277 -- have been or shall be spiritually united to Christ as their Saviour, Eph. 1:22; 3:10, 21; 5:23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32; Col. 1:18, 24. The

Chapter 249

1. THE CHURCH MILITANT AND THE CHURCH TRIUMPHANT.

The Church as she now exists on earth is a militant Church, that is, she is called unto and is actually engaged in a holy war. She must carry on an incessant warfare against the hostile world in every form in which it re

Chapter 250

2. THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE CHURCH. The one Church

of Jesus Christ is on the one hand visible and on the other invisible. This is a distinction applied to the Church as it exists on earth. She is called invisible, because she is essentially spiritual and cannot, as far a

Chapter 251

3. THE CHURCH AS AN ORGANISM AND THE CHURCH AS AN

INSTITUTION OR ORGANIZATION. This distinction applies only to the visible Church. The Church as an institution or organization becomes visible in the offices, in the administration of the Word and the sacraments, and in

Chapter 252

D. Definition of the Church. In defining the Church it will be

necessary to bear in mind the distinction between the visible and the invisible Church. (1) The former may be defined as the company of the elect who are called by the Spirit of God, or briefer still, as the communion of

Chapter 253

1. IN THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. In the patriarchal period the

Church was best represented in the pious households, where the fathers served as priests. There was at first no collective worship, though Gen. 4:26 seems to imply a public calling upon the name of the Lord. At the time

Chapter 254

2. IN THE MOSAIC PERIOD. After the exodus the people of Israel

were organized into a nation and also constituted the Church of God. -- 215 of 277 -- They were enriched with a ceremonial cultus in which the religion of the nation could find expression. The Church had no independent

Chapter 255

3. IN THE NEW TESTAMENT PERIOD. On the day of Pentecost the

Church was divorced from the national life of Israel and obtained an independent organization. What had up to this time been a national Church now assumed a universal character. And in order to realize the ideal of a wor

Chapter 256

1. THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. According to Roman Catholics the

unity of the Church consists in its imposing world-wide organization, which aims at the inclusion of all nations. It centers especially in the hierarchy. Protestants maintain that the unity of the Church is primarily of

Chapter 257

2. THE HOLINESS OF THE CHURCH. Roman Catholics also

conceive of the holiness of the Church in an external fashion. Instead of the inner holiness of its members, it stresses the ceremonial holiness of its dogmas, its moral precepts, its worship, and its discipline. Protest

Chapter 258

3. THE CATHOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. The Church of Rome lays

special claim to the attitude of catholicity in view of the fact that she is spread over the whole earth, has existed from the beginning and continues to exist, while sects come and go, and has a greater number of member

Chapter 259

1. THE TRUE PREACHING OF THE WORD OF GOD. This is the

most important mark of the Church, John 8:31, 32, 47; 14:23; 1 John 4:1–3; 2 John 9. This does not mean that a Church's preaching of the Word must be perfect and absolutely pure, if it is to be recognized as a true Churc

Chapter 260

2. THE RIGHT ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS. The

sacraments should never be divorced from the Word of God, as they are in the Church of Rome, since they are in fact but a visible preaching of the Word. They should be administered by lawful ministers of the Word, in acc

Chapter 261

3. THE FAITHFUL EXERCISE OF DISCIPLINE. The faithful

exercise of discipline is quite essential for maintaining purity of doctrine and safeguarding the holiness of the sacraments. Churches that are lax in discipline soon find the light of the truth eclipsed, and that which

Chapter 262

1. QUAKERS AND DARBYITES. Quakers and Darbyites reject all

Church government as a matter of principle. They believe that every external church organization necessarily degenerates and leads to results that are contrary to the spirit of Christianity. For the Word of God they subs

Chapter 263

2. THE ERASTIAN SYSTEM. Erastians regard the Church as a

society which owes its existence and form to regulations enacted by the State. The officers in the Church are merely instructors or preachers of the Word, without any right or power to rule, except that which they derive

Chapter 264

3. THE EPISCOPALIAN SYSTEM. The Episcopalians hold that

Christ, as the Head of the Church, has entrusted the government of the Church directly and exclusively to an independent order of bishops, as the successors of the apostles. The community of believers has absolutely no s

Chapter 265

4. THE PRESENT ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. This is the

Episcopal system carried to its logical conclusion. It recognizes not only successors of the apostles in the bishops, but also a successor of Peter, who had the primacy among the apostles. The Pope is honored as the infa

Chapter 266

5. THE CONGREGATIONAL SYSTEM. This is also called the system

of independency. In this system each local church or congregation is regarded as a complete church, independent of every other. The governing power rests exclusively with the members of the Church. The officers are simpl

Chapter 267

6. THE NATIONAL CHURCH SYSTEM. This proceeds on the

assumption that the Church is a voluntary association just as the State. The separate churches or congregations are merely subdivisions of the one national Church. The State has the right to reform public worship, to dec

Chapter 268

1. CHRIST THE HEAD OF THE CHURCH AND THE SOURCE OF

ALL ITS AUTHORITY. Christ is the Head of the Church in a twofold sense. He is the Head of the Church in an organic sense. The Church is the body to which He stands in vital and organic relationship, which He fills with H

Chapter 269

2. CHRIST EXERCISES HIS AUTHORTY BY MEANS OF THE

WORD. Christ does not rule the Church by force, but by His Spirit and by the Word of God as its standard of authority. All believers are -- 221 of 277 -- unconditionally bound to obey the word of the King. As Christ is

Chapter 270

3. CHRIST AS KING ENDOWED HIS CHURCH WITH POWER.

Christ endowed the Church with the power that is necessary for carrying on the work which He entrusted to it. He invests all the members of the Church with a certain measure of power, but bestows a special measure of it

Chapter 271

4. THE RULING POWER RESIDES PRIMARILY IN THE LOCAL

CHURCH. The ruling power of the Church resides primarily in the local consistories and is by these passed on to classes and synods. Every local church has a certain measure of autonomy or independence, but this is natura

Chapter 272

1. EXTRAORDINARY OFFICERS. Of these the New Testament

mentions three classes: -- 222 of 277 -- a. Apostles. Strictly speaking, the name apostle applies only to the Twelve chosen by Jesus and Paul; but it is also given to some apostolic men, Acts 14:4, 14; 1 Cor. 9:5, 6; 2

Chapter 273

2. ORDINARY OFFICERS. The following classes of ordinary officers

should be mentioned. a. Elders. The term "elders" is sometimes used to denote the older men of the community, and sometimes to designate a class of officers somewhat similar to those who functioned in the synagogue. Freq

Chapter 274

3. THE OFFICERS' CALLING AND INDUCTION INTO OFFICE. In

the discussion of these points we limit ourselves to the ordinary officers. a. Their Calling. The calling of the officers is twofold: (1) Internal calling. This internal calling should not be regarded as a supernatural c

Chapter 275

1. THE VARIOUS ECCLESIASTICAL ASSEMBLIES. The Reformed

Churches have a number of governing bodies. Their relation to each other is marked by a careful judicial gradation. These are known as consistory (session), classis (presbytery), and synod. Some Churches have an interven

Chapter 276

2. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE LOCAL CHURCH. In Reformed

Churches the government of the local church is of a representative character. The people choose ruling elders as their representatives, and these together with the minister (s) form a council or consistory for the govern

Chapter 277

3. THE MAJOR ASSEMBLIES. The major assemblies are classes and

synods, and these call for a few remarks. a. Scripture Warrant for Major Assemblies. Scripture contains no explicit command to the effect that local churches must affiiliate and form an organic union. The duty of such af

Chapter 278

1. A SPIRITUAL POWER. That the power of the Church is spiritual

does not mean that it is altogether internal and invisible, since Christ rules both body and soul. The ministry of the deacons has special -- 229 of 277 -- reference to the needs of the body. It is spiritual because it

Chapter 279

2. A MINISTERIAL POWER. It is clear from Scripture that the

power of the Church is no independent and sovereign power, Matt. 20:25, 26; 23:8, 10; 2 Cor. 10:4, 5; 1 Pet. 5:3, but a ministerial power, Acts 4:29, 30; 20:24; Rom. 1:1, etc., which is derived from Christ and is subordi

Chapter 280

1. A DOGMATIC OR TEACHING POWER. The Church has a task in

connection with the truth. The Word of God was given to the Church as a precious deposit of the truth, and the Church is commissioned to guard the truth, to hand it on faithfully from generation to generation, and to def

Chapter 281

2. A GOVERNING POWER. The governing power of the Church

includes two elements: a. A Regulating Power. "God is not a God of confusion, but of peace," 1 Cor. 14:33. He desires that in the Church "all things be done decently and in order," vs. 40. For that reason He has made pro

Chapter 282

3. A POWER OR MINISTRY OF MERCY. When Christ sent out His

apostles and the seventy disciples, He not only instructed them to preach, but also gave them power to cast out devils and to cure all manner of diseases, Matt. 10:1, 8; Luke 9:1, 2; 10:9. 17. And among -- 232 of 277 --

Chapter 283

1. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE LAW AND THE GOSPEL.

The law and the gospel should not be represented as absolute opposites, as is sometimes done in the present day. They who do this contemplate the law as the condition of the covenant of works and usually fail to recogniz

Chapter 284

2. THE FUNCTION OF THE LAW. The law serves the purpose of

common grace in the world at large by restraining sin and promoting righteousness. However, this is not its specfic use as a means of grace, for the "means of grace" are means of special grace. In this capacity the law f

Chapter 285

3. THE FUNCTION OF THE GOSPEL. The law, conceived purely as

law, can only point away from itself, and in connection with the promises of the Old Testament points to the coming Redeemer as the way of salvation. The gospel is a clear representation of the way of salvation revealed

Chapter 286

1. THE OUTWARD AND VISIBLE SIGN. Each one of the sacraments

contains an external element, namely, the water in baptism, and the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper. Where these elements are administered and appropriated, there we have the entire external matter of the sacrament.

Chapter 287

2. THE INWARD SPIRITUAL GRACE SIGNIFIED. A sign naturally

points to something that is signified, and this constitutes the internal -- 238 of 277 -- matter of the sacrament. This is variously indicated in Scripture, as the covenant of grace, Gen. 17:11, the righteousness of fa

Chapter 288

3. THE UNION BETWEEN THE SIGN AND THE THING

SIGNIFIED. It is this union between the sign and the thing signified that really constitutes the essence of the sacrament. This should not be conceived as physical, as if the external matter naturally included the intern

Chapter 289

D. The Necessity of the Sacraments. Roman Catholics hold that

baptism is absolutely necessary unto salvation, and that the sacrament of penance is equally necessary for those who have committed a mortal sin after baptism; but that confirmation, the eucharist, and extreme unction ar

Chapter 290

1. WHAT IS THE ESSENTIAL THING IN THE SYMBOLISM OF

BAPTISM? According to Baptists the essential thing in baptism is immersion. Baptism in any other form is not baptism at all, for the real baptismal idea is expressed in the going down into and the coming up out of the wa

Chapter 291

2. IS IMMERSION THE ONLY PROPER MODE OF BAPTISM? In

opposition to the Baptists, who regard immersion as the only proper mode of baptism, we maintain that the mode is quite immaterial, as long as the fundamental idea of purification finds expression in the rite. Jesus did

Chapter 292

C. The Lawful Administrators of Baptism. Protestants generally

proceed on the assumption that the administration of the Word and that of the sacraments belong together, and that therefore only the minister of the gospel is the lawful administrator of baptism. Moreover, they hold tha

Chapter 293

1. ADULT BAPTISM. Baptism is intended for believers and their

seed. When Jesus gave His disciples the great commission, instructing them to make disciples of all nations and to baptize them in the name of the triune God, He undoubtedly had in mind primarily the baptism of adults, f

Chapter 294

2. INFANT BAPTISM. While there is general agreement as to the

legitimacy of the baptism of adult believers, there is no such unanimity respecting the lawfulness of baptizing their children. The Baptists deny that these are entitled to baptism. In connection with the baptism of infa

Chapter 295

1. THE THINGS SIGNIFIED. Sacraments always represent one or

more spiritual truths by means of outward signs. The sign in the Lord's Supper includes not only the visible elements of bread and wine, but also the appropriation of these by eating and drinking. Several things are sign

Chapter 296

2. THE THINGS SEALED. The Lord's Supper is not only a sign but

also a seal. These two aspects of the sacrament are closely related. The sacrament as a sign or with all that it signifies constitutes a seal. The seal is attached to the thing signified and is a pledge of its realizatio

Chapter 297

C. The Question of the Real Presence in the Lord's Supper. The

question as to the nature of the presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper is one that has long been debated, and one on which there is still considerable difference of opinion. There are four views that come into consider

Chapter 298

1. THE VIEW OF ROME. The Church of Rome conceives of the

presence of Christ in the sacrament in a physical sense. It maintains that, when the priest utters the formula, "this is my body," bread and wine change into the body and blood of Christ. This view is based primarily on

Chapter 299

2. THE LUTHERAN VIEW. Luther rejected the Roman Catholic

doctrine of transsubstantiation and substituted for it the doctrine of consubstantiation. This avers that, while bread and wine remain what they are, the whole person of Christ, body and blood, is present in, under, and

Chapter 300

3. THE ZWINGLIAN VIEW. Zwingli denied the bodily presence of

Christ in the Lord's Supper, but at the same time believed that the true communicant conceived of Him as present in a spiritual manner. He stressed the significance of the Lord's Supper as a memorial of what Christ did f

Chapter 301

4. THE REFORMED VIEW. Calvin took exception to Zwingli's view

as well as to the Roman Catholic and Lutheran views. His conception represents a mean between the two. Instead of the physical and local he taught the spiritual presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. In distinction fro

Chapter 302

D. The Efficacy of the Lord's Supper as a Means of Grace. The Lord's

Supper was instituted for believers only, and therefore does not serve the purpose of beginning the work of grace in the heart, but only of strengthening it. The grace that is received in the sacrament does not differ in

Chapter 303

C. The Significance of the Death of Believers. The Bible speaks of

physical death as a punishment, as "the wages of sin." Since believers are set free from the guilt of sin, the question naturally arises, Why must they die? It is evident that death cannot be a punishment for them, since

Chapter 304

1. PURGATORY. According to the Church of Rome the souls of those

who are perfect at death are at once admitted to heaven or the beatific vision of God, Matt. 25:46; Phil. 1:23, but those who are not perfectly cleansed, but are still burdened with the guilt of venial sins —and this is

Chapter 305

2. LIMBUS PATRUM. The Limbus Patrum is the place where,

according to the Roman Catholic Church, the souls of the Old Testament saints were detained in a state of expectation until the Lord's resurrection from the dead. After His death Christ went down into this part of hades,

Chapter 306

3. LIMBUS INFANTUM. Roman Catholics speak of the Limbus

Infantum as the abode of the souls of un-baptized children, -- 257 of 277 -- irrespective of their descent from heathen or from Christian parents. These children cannot be admitted to heaven, cannot enter the kingdom o

Chapter 307

C. The Doctrine of the Sleep of the Soul. Certain sects in the early

Christian centuries, in the Middle Ages, and also at the time of the Reformation, advocated the notion that, after death, the soul indeed continues to exist, but in a state of unconscious repose or sleep. This view is al

Chapter 308

D. The Doctrine of Annihilation and of Conditional Immortality.

According to these doctrines there is no conscious existence, if any existence at all, of the wicked after death. These two views agree in their conception of the ultimate condition of the wicked, but differ in a couple

Chapter 309

1. THE CALLING OF THE GENTILES. Several passages of the New

Testament point to the fact that the gospel of the kingdom must be preached to all nations before the return of the Lord, Matt. 24:14; Mark 13:10; Rom. 11:25. This does not merely mean that at least one missionary must b

Chapter 310

2. THE CONVERSION OF ISRAEL. Both the Old and the New

Testament speak of a future conversion of Israel, Zech. 12:10; 13:1; 2 Cor. 3:15, 16; Rom. 11:25–29. The passage in Romans 11 seems to connect this with the end of time. Some infer from these passages that Israel as a wh

Chapter 311

3. THE COMING OF ANTICHRIST. The Bible predicts the revelation

of antichrist, the man of sin, who sets himself up in opposition to Jesus Christ, but will be slain by the breath of the Lord at the time of His return, 2 Thess. 2:3–10. Scripture speaks of antichrists in the plural, 1 J

Chapter 312

4. SIGNS AND WONDERS. Several signs are spoken of as harbingers

of the end of the world and of the coming of Christ. Scripture speaks (a) of wars, famines, and earthquakes in divers places, which are called the beginning of travail, to be followed by the rebirth of the universe; (b)

Chapter 313

1. THE TIME OF THE SECOND COMING. Premillenarians believe

that the coming of Christ is imminent, which means that it may now occur at any time. Scripture teaches us, however, that the things mentioned in the preceding must transpire before the Lord's return, Matt. 24:14; 2 Thes

Chapter 314

2. THE MANNER OF THE SECOND COMING. The coming of Christ

will be: a. A Personal Coming. Many Rationalists and liberal theologians of the present day deny the personal return of Jesus Christ. They give a figurative interpretation to the glowing descriptions of the second coming

Chapter 315

3. THE PURPOSE OF THE SECOND COMING. Christ will return at

the end of the world for the purpose of introducing the future age, the eternal state of things, and He will do this by inaugurating and completing two mighty events, namely, the resurrection of the dead and the final ju

Chapter 316

1. POST-MILLENNIALISM. Post-millennialism teaches that the

second coming of Christ will follow the millennium. The millennium is expected during the gospel dispensation, in which we are now living, and at the close of which Christ will appear. a. Two Kinds of Post-Millennialism.

Chapter 317

2. PRE-MILLENNIALISM. Pre-millennialism holds that Christ, at

His return, will raise up all the righteous dead, will convert the Jews and bring them back to the Holy Land, will re-establish the national kingdom of the Jews in unprecedented glory and power, and will then rule this k

Chapter 318

1. SCRIPTURE PROOF FOR THE RESURRECTION. It is sometimes

said that the Old Testament contains no proof for the resurrection of the dead; but this is hardly correct. Christ finds proof for it in Ex. 3:6, cf. Matt. 22:31, 32. It is implied in the passages that speak of deliveran

Chapter 319

2. THE CHARACTER OF THE RESURRECTION. The resurrection

taught in Scripture is: a. A Bodily Resurrection. There were some in the days of Paul, and there are many today, who believe only in a spiritual resurrection. But the Bible clearly teaches a resurrection of the body. Chr

Chapter 320

3. THE TIME OF THE RESURRECTION.

a. Scripture Indications as to the Time. According to Scripture the resurrection coincides with the return of Christ, and with the end of the world, and immediately precedes the final judgment. Notice how it is connected

Chapter 321

1. THE JUDGE AND HIS ASSISTANTS. Christ, as the Mediator, will

be the Judge, Matt. 25:31, 32; John 5:27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; Phil. 2:10; 2 Tim. 4:1. This honor was conferred on Christ as a reward for His atoning work, and constitutes a part of His exaltation. The angels will assist H

Chapter 322

2. THE PARTIES THAT WILL BE JUDGED. Scripture contains clear

indications of at least two parties that will be judged. It is perfectly evident that every individual of the human race will have to appear before the judgment-seat, Eccl. 12:14; Ps. 50:4–6; Matt. 12:36, 37; 25:32; Rom.

Chapter 323

46. It is also clear that Satan and his demons will be judged, Matt.

8:29; 1 Cor. 6:3; 2 Pet. 2:4; Jude 6. Whether the good angels will also be subject to the final judgment is not so easy to determine, though some would infer this from 1 Cor. 6:4. They are represented only as ministers o

Chapter 324

3. THE TIME OF THE JUDGMENT. Since the last judgment will be

a judgment passed on the whole life of every man, it will naturally be at the end of the world, and will follow immediately after the resurrection of the dead, John 5:28, 29; Rev. 20:12, 13. The duration of the judgment

Chapter 325

4. THE STANDARD OF JUDGMENT. The standard by which saints

and sinners will be judged will evidently be the revealed will of God. Gentiles will be judged by the law of nature, Jews by the Old Testament revelation, and New Testament believers by this -- 273 of 277 -- revelation

Chapter 326

1. THE FINAL STATE OF THE WICKED. Three points call for

consideration here: a. The Place to Which They are Consigned. The place of punishment is usually called "hell." Some deny that hell is a place and regard it merely as a subjective condition, in which man may find himself

Chapter 327

2. THE FINAL STATE OF THE RIGHTEOUS.

a. The New Creation. The final state of believers will be preceded by the passing of the present world and the establishment of a new creation, Matt. 19:28 speaks of "the regeneration," and Acts 3:21 of the "restoration